variance and dissension, while neither of them was in absolute and unalloyed possession of good or evil ; the one being more calm and settled, tending to union with God, yet not free from pride, inasmuch as its virtue lies beyond the means of testing or comparison ; the other, which is of more practical service, being not free from the tendency to turbulence. He founded cells for ascetics and hermits, but at no great distance from his coenobitic communities, and, instead of dis tinguishing and separating the one from the other, as if by some intervening wall, he brought them together and united them, in order that the contemplative spirit might not be cut off from society, nor the active life be uninfluenced by the contemplative, but that, like sea and land, by an interchange of their several gifts, they might unite in promoting the one object, the glory of God. Yet in spite of this reconciliation of which Gregory speaks with such admiration, Basil himself in his own writings leaves us in no doubt as to his preference for the community life as the best means for the attainment of Christian perfection. In later days we find that the life of the monk was often considered as being merely preparatory to the life of the hermit, but there is no suggestion of any such idea in Basil monastic scheme. He asserts plainly and with out qualification that the solitary life is both difficult and dangerous .
TO 6opv@a>8s ov 1 Reg. Fus. 51.
lt;sup>2 Reg. Fus. 52. No curiosity concerning the reasons for his commands is to be shown: Reg. Fus. 48.
Reg. Fus. 25.
contrary to the will of God, and so be found false witness of God, or be guilty of sacrilege either by introducing that which isagainst the teaching of the Lord, or by omitting that which is pleasing to God. In his dealings with the brethren, " even as a nurse cherisheth her own children," so he will be eager to give to each one not only the Gospel of God, but even his own life, that thereby God may be pleased and the whole community benefited, according to the com mandment of our Lord and God, Jesus Christ, who said : "A new commandment give unto you, that ye love one another, even as have loved you." " Greater love hath no man than this, that man lay down his life for his friends."
Punishments, which, as we have seen, are to be remedial, and proportionate to the crime, will be administered in the same spirit of love. Persistent disobedience, however, is to be punished with separa tion from the society of the brethren. Thus Basil lays down that, He who fails in his obedience to the commandments of the Lord is at first to be treated by all with compassion as an ailing member, and the superior by his own exhortations will endeavour to restore him to health. But if he persist in his disobedience, and refuse correction, he must be more severely rebuked before the whole brotherhood, and every remedy of exhortation must be applied. And if, after much reproof, he still remains obdurate, and does not amend either himself or his ways, being, in the words of the proverb, " his own ruin," it will be necessary, with
John xiii. 34 ; xv. ; Reg. Brev. 98.
much grief and sorrow, to regard him as a decayed and useless limb, and to cut him off from the rest of the body.' Disobedience is not merely an offence against the discipline of the community, but a sign of grave moral defects. 'Insubordination and defiance are the proofs of a multitude of sins, of tainted faith, of doubtful hope, of proud and overweening conduct.' 2
We have thus seen, from Basil's own words, how the community life with its common rule of discipline and its one centre of authority was to be a field for the cultivation of what was then a much-needed virtue, obedience.
lt;sup>1 Reg. Fus. 28. 1. On the various degrees of punishment cf. Reg. Brev. 44 and 122, which mention (a) deprivation of blessing, εὐλογίαν μὴ λαβεῖν, (b) deprivation of food, ἀσιτία, (c) separation, ἀφορισμός.
Reg. Fus. 28. 2.
CHAPTER VIII
THE MONK AT PRAYER
As we might naturally expect, Basil very strongly insists upon the necessity of prayer for the true Christian, and more especially for the monastic community. Prayer, however, is not to be merely a spasmodic effort or an occasional expedient. It is to be constant and ; continuous, and for the devout Christian prayerfulness must become natural and spontaneous habit of mind. There isa passage of great beauty on this subject in one of Basil Homilies.
Ought we to pray without ceasing ? Is it possible to obey such command ? These are questions which see you are ready to ask. will endeavour, to the best of my ability, to prove my case. Prayer is a petition for good addressed by the pious to God. But we do not rigidly confine our petition to words. Nor yet do we imagine that God requires to be reminded by speech. He knows our needs even though we do not ask Him.
What do say then ? say that we must not think that our prayer consists only in syllables. The strength of prayer lies rather in the purpose of our soul, and in deeds of virtue affecting every part and moment of our
Horn, in Martytent Julittam, 3-4.
life. "Whether ye eat," it is said, "or drink, or whatever ye do, do all to the glory of God." As thou takest thy seat at table, pray. As thou liftest the loaf, offer thanks to the Giver. When thou sustainest thy bodily weakness with wine, remember Him who supplies thee with this gift, to make thy heart glad and comfort thy infirmity. Has thy need for food passed away? Let not the thought of thy merciful Benefactor pass away As thou art putting on thy tunic, thank Him who gave it thee. As thou wrappest thy cloak about thee, feel yet greater love to God, who alike in summer and winter has given us clothing convenient for us, both to cover what is unseemly and to preserve our life. Is the day over? Thank Him who has given us the sun for the service of our daily work, and has provided us with fire to brighten the night, and to serve for the other needs of life.
'Let night also afford other suggestions of prayer. When thou lookest up to heaven, and seest the beauty of the stars, pray to the Lord of all things visible, the great Artist of the universe, who "in wisdom hath made them all". And when thou seest all nature sunk in sleep, then again worship Him who even against our will releases us from the continuous strain of toil, and by a short respite restores us once again to the vigour of our strength. Let not night herself be altogether the special property of sleep. Let not half thy life be useless in the dull torpor of slumber, but divide the time of night between sleep and prayer. And let thy very slumbers be exercises of piety; for
lt;sup>1 I Cor. x. 31.
lt;sup>2 Ps. civ. 24.
the dreams of our sleep are wont to be for the most part the reflections of our thoughts by day. As have been our conduct and pursuits, so will of necessity be our dreams. Thus mayest thou pray without ceasing, not in words, but by the whole conduct of thy life, so uniting thyself to God that thy life is one long, unceasing prayer.
It was perhaps the greatest advantage of the monastery that there, if anywhere, continuity in prayer was possible. The undistracted life provided ample opportunity for close communion with God in prayer and worship. In the quiet life of solitude we overcome our former manner of life in which we neglected the commandments of Christ, and so have power to eradicate the stains of sin by ceaseless prayer and constant attention to the will of God ; for we cannot hope to apply ourselves to such con templation and prayer amid the many things which distract the mind by leading it to worldly cares . Basil tells us that it is possible for the monk with his constant round of prayer and meditation to imitate on earth the choruses of the angels .
Assiduity in prayer is achieved through the practice of the presence of God, by being fully certain that God is before our eyes. For if when we see prince or ruler, and converse with him, we keep our eyes fixed upon him, how much more shall he who prays to God keep his mind fixed upon Him who searcheth
Cf. Reg. Brev. 32.
ourcpiairaaTos /3tos. Cf. Reg. Brev. 34, De Ren. I.
Reg. Fus. 6. i. \ Ep. 2. 2.
the heart and reins, and so fulfil the Scripture, "Lifting up holy hands without fear and doubting." '1
It is perhaps surprising that Basil does not in his instructions make some mention of the duty of intercession. In modern times we have come to think of intercessory prayer as one of the chief functions which the monastic community is able to fulfil. We can only suppose that Basil treated this subject in the 'unwritten rules '2 which he is said to have delivered by word of mouth to his monks. In his Letters he frequently asks his friends to remember him in their prayers, both in private and public. There is one Letter which is of special interest in this connexion, where Basil asks an assessor of taxes to exempt some monks from the general taxation. He pleads their poverty, and also adds, 'Men living such lives you will, I know, regard with special reverence; nay you will wish to secure their intervention, since by their life in the Gospel they are able to prevail with God.' 3
Another passage is perhaps worth quoting: 'Be mindful therefore of God,' he writes. 'Keep the fear of Him in your heart and enlist all men to join with you in your prayers, for great is the aid of them that are able to move God by their importunity.'
Among the hermits of the Desert this desire for continuous prayer had led to strange excesses. The task was indeed beyond the limits of human capacity. The individual worshipper, however great might be
lt;sup>1 I Tim. ii. 8; Reg. Brev. 201.
lt;sup>2 Cf. Greg. Naz. Orat. 43, 34 νομοθεσίαι μοναστῶν ἔγγραφοί τε καὶ ἄγραφοι. Ep. 284; cf. Praev. Inst. Asc. 1. Ep. 174, To a widow.
his devotion, could not entirely disregard the needs of his physical nature. Accordingly we find that when monastic communities were formed various schemes were devised by means of which some such laus perennis should be practicable. Gregory of Nyssa tells us that in the convent over which Macrina presided there was perpetual sequence of prayer and praise. But this perpetuity was by no means general rule. The Pachomian monks, for example, had their fixed hours of common prayer, though each individual was left free to continue his private devotions at his own discretion.
Basil also, while encouraging and indeed demanding private prayer, orders that there shall be certain defi nite times at which the community will assemble for Divine service. No doubt itis true that for prayer and praise all times are fitting , and that even in the midst of our work we can fulfil the duties of prayer , yet none the less we must not neglect the appointed times of prayer which we have chosen for the brethren . Further, the services are to be varied as much as possible so as to avoid inattention.
We are told very little as to the actual form of these services, though we can infer that they con sisted of psalms, prayers, and readings from Scripture. Suitable persons are to be chosen to lead both the singing and the prayers. Each service is to have its own peculiar significance and associations.
Vita S. Macrinae, Op. iii. 970.
Reg. Fus. 37. 2. Ibid. 3.
Cf. Horn, in Ps. lix rd 0ia \uyia . . . KaQ ticaarov avA\oyov vwava- Reg. Brev. 307.
Basil's account of the times of prayer which the monasteries are to observe is of no small interest, and is well worth translation. remembrance of God's benefits to us. We must pray in the early morning, in order that the first motions of the soul and mind may be dedicated to God, and that we may take nothing in hand until we have been gladdened by the contemplation of God, as the Scripture says, "I remembered God and was glad," nor apply ourselves to any work until we have done that which is written, "Unto thee will I make my prayer, O Lord. My voice shalt thou hear betimes. Early in the morning will I direct my prayer unto thee, and will look up." 2. 'Again at the third hour prayer is to be made and the brethren assembled, even though they be already dispersed to their various tasks. For, remembering the gift of the Holy Spirit which was given to the Apostles at the third hour, we must all worship together with one accord, in order that we too may be worthy to receive His sanctification. And we must also ask for His direction and instruction according to our needs, as the Psalmist says, "Make me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit within me. Cast me not away from thy presence, and take not thy holy Spirit from me. O give me the comfort of thy help again, and stablish me with thy free 'S Spirit." 4 Or again, "Let thy loving Spirit lead me
lt;sup>1 Ps. lxxvii. 3 (Lxx).
LXX, πνεύματι ήγεμονικώ.
lt;sup>2 Ps. v. 4-5.
lt;sup>4 Ps. li. 12, 13.
forth into the land of righteousness." We shall then return to our labours. And even though some few of the brethren be absent owing to work, or their distance from home, they must nevertheless perform without shrinking the obligations of the community. " For where two or three are gathered together in my name, there am in the midst of them." 3. .At the sixth hour also we have decided that prayer must be made, following the example of the saints, as it is written, " In the evening, and morning, and at noonday will tell and proclaim; and he shall hear my voice." And that we may be delivered from calamity and from the demon of the noonday, let the ninetieth Psalm be recited at this hour. 4. The ninth hour, too, is a fitting time of prayer, as we learn from the Apostles in the Acts, where itis said that Peter and John went up to the temple " at the hour of prayer, being the ninth hour ". 5. Moreover, when the day is finished there must be a thanksgiving for benefits received and good deeds done during the day, and also a confession of sins. And whether the fault be voluntary or involuntary, or secret and forgotten, whether it be by word, or deed, or in the thoughts of the heart, we must seek to appease God for them all by our prayers. For an examination of our past misdeeds is of great help to prevent us
Ps. cxliii. 10. Matt, xviii. 20 ; cf. Reg. Brev. 143.
Ps. Iv. 8. \ E. V. xci. Actsiii. i.
from falling once again into the same faults. Wherefore it is said, " For what ye say in your hearts, feel com punction upon your beds." 6. And again, as night begins, we must pray that our rest may be blameless, and free from fantasies, while at this hour also we repeat the ninetieth Psalm. 7. That midnight also is a fitting time of prayer is proved by the example of Paul and Silas, as is recorded in the Acts, when it is said, " But at midnight Paul and Silas were praising God." And the Psalmist says, " At midnight will rise to give thanks unto thee, because of thy righteous judgements." 4 8. Again it is right to prevent the dawn by rising to prayer, lest the break of day find us asleep in our beds, as it is written, " Mine eyes prevented the dawn, that might meditate upon thy sayings."
None of these times of prayer are to be neglected by those who are resolved diligently to live for the glory of God and His Christ. And am of opinion that diversity and variety in the prayers and psalms of the appointed hours are useful, and for this reason, that a want of variety often produces slothfulness in the mind, so that it becomes inattentive, while by changing and varying the psalms and the reading at each office our fervour may be rekindled and our attention renewed.
No less than eight separate services are mentioned as being obligatory for the monk under all circumstances.
Ps. iv. 4 (LXX). E.V. xci. Acts xvi. 25, ad sens.
dffi?5{? fj fax?) at dironfTcupi^erai.
Reg. Fus. 37. 3-5.
Ps. cxix. 62. Ps. cxix. 148.
rov ircpl tKaarrjs upas \6yov\
We shall see that, in the order in which they are presented, they correspond to Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, Compline, Nocturns and Lauds. It is something of a surprise to find such explicit mention of the Canonical Hours at this early date, and Basil account of these services calls for careful investigation, as being of great value for the history of the Divine Office. 1. In the first place we have what apparently is reference to Prime. This has been much disputed, and some would see in Basil words merely a description of Lauds. Further, Cassian claims that he himself was the first to introduce the service of Prime. But in that case it is hard to see why we should here have two separate accounts of one and the same meeting for morning prayers. It is more probable that Lauds was an adjunct of the night office, and that the monks were allowed a few hours rest after it. But in order that they should not sleep on until Terce, another service, namely Prime, was inserted. We cannot argue from Basil quotations that Pss. v and Ixxvii were recited at this office. 2. The express reference to the Holy Spirit in the account given of Terce is to be noted. It was more usual to associate the Passion of Christ with this hour. But Basil prefers to mention that at this hour the Holy Spirit was given to the Apostles, and so all are
De Inst. Coen. iii. 4 hanc matutinam . . . canonicam functionem nostro tempore in nostroque monasterio primitus institutam.
Cf. Canons of Hippolytus, 27 quia illo tempore Salvator voluntarie crucifixus est. Baumer, Gesch. des Breviers, p. 52.
Cf. also Cyprian, De Or. Dom. super discipulos hora tertia descendit Spiritus sanctus.
to worship together with one accord, that they may be found worthy of the Spirit sanctification. As the great defender of the Godhead of the Holy Spirit, he is the more insistent upon this point. Any service in which special honour was paid to the Third Person of the Trinity would be of special value in those days of controversy. 3. With regard to the sixth hour, or Sext, we have again to observe that there is no reference to the Cruci fixion, but the Psalms are quoted in support of the practice of noonday prayer. It is interesting to note that Basil makes use of the reference to the demon of the noonday in the ninety-first Psalm, which he orders to be recited both at this hour and at Compline. 4. At the ninth hour, or None, the example of the Apostles Peter and John is quoted to prove the ancient observance of this hour as time of prayer. Again we miss the association with the Death of Christ. It is noticeable that Basil has three Day-hours. Others made four, by dividing the midday office, and so com pleted the Seven Hours. 5. In the case of the evening prayers, or Vespers, we have much fuller notice. The service being of very early origin needed no justification, and so Basil merely gives us some idea of its actual contents. There is
Cf. Can. Hippol. ibid. quia ilia hora universa creatura pertur bata est propter facinus scelestum a ludaeis perpetratum. Cf. also (Pseud. Bas) Serm. Asc. i. 4 rj \vvo.rr] rov SeairoriKov iraOovs karl
Can. Hippol. ibid, quia ilia hora Christus oravit et tradidit spiritum in manus Patris sui.
Cf. Serm Asc. I. eiretSfi 1 Ep. 3. Reg. Brev. 95. Chap. 5
Cf. Reg. Brev. 235 εἰ συμφέρει πολλὰ ἐκμανθάνειν ἐκ τῶν Γραφῶν.
friend Gregory in their monastic retreat composed the Philocalia, or selection from the writings of Origen, a work requiring a high degree of learned and careful study.
Besides meditation frequent reference is made to the duty of thanksgiving, and we know that it formed a considerable element in the prayers and praises of the monastic offices. Basil has also a Homily on the subject, while in his Moralia he gives reasons from Scripture to prove that 'we should not keep silence as to God's benefits, but should give thanks for them'. In his Longer Rules he affirms that the Apostolic command 'to give thanks in everything' is proved by both reason and experience, and that the various hours of prayer are so many occasions of thanksgiving.
But joined together with the duty of thanksgiving is the need for frequent confession of sin. A general acknowledgement of transgressions was made, as we have already seen, both in the morning and evening. But such confession was by no means adequate for all cases. Thus Basil lays down that 'the monk is not to conceal his sins from his brother or from himself'. 'Every sin must be made known to the superior, either by the sinner himself, or by those who know of
lt;sup>1 Cf. R. T. Smith, p. 24: 'Origen was the most suggestive writer upon Bible subjects then accessible; certainly not the author who would have been chosen if the friends had been losing their intellectual vigour or spirit of free inquiry in a dull asceticism.'
lt;sup>2 De Gratiarum Actione, Op. ii. 4.
Mor. 55. 2.
Reg. Fus. 37. 3.
δ ἀναφέρεσθαι δεῖ τῷ προεστῶτι.
it, if they cannot themselves apply a remedy, according to the commandment of the Lord. For the evil that is kept secret is like some hidden sickness in the soul. As then we should not consider it a kindness if some one were to fasten up a deadly disease in our body, but rather be grateful to any one who would, even at the cost of a painful operation, expose the disease, and so either expel it by an emetic, or discover some other means of remedy. In the same way to conceal a sin, is to help the sinner to his death. For it is written, "The sting of death is sin." And "Better is open rebuke than secret love." 2 Wherefore, a man should neither hide his sin from his neighbour, lest he become his brother's murderer instead of being his friend, nor indeed from himself. 'For he who doth not amend his ways is brother to him that destroyeth him.' 3
Confession, however, is not to be made to any one at random, and great care must be exercised in the choice of a confessor. 'For just as men do not expose their diseases to every one, but only to those who are skilled at applying remedies, so also confession of sins should be made to those who can give a remedy, as it is written, "Ye that are strong ought to bear the infirmities of the weak," that is, to remove them by your diligent care.' Elsewhere in the Rules it is laid down that 'sins are to be confessed to those who have been entrusted with
lt;sup>1 I Cor. xv. 56.
lt;sup>2 Prov. xxvii. 5.
lt;sup>3 Prov. xviii. 9 (LXX).
$$ When the sisters make their confessions an elder sister is always to be present. Reg. Brev. 110.
lt;sup>5 Rom. xv. 1; Reg. Brev. 229; cf. Reg. Fus. 26.
the dispensation of the mysteries of God. For so those who were repentant are found to have confessed their sins to John the Baptist; and in the Acts, to the Apostles, by whom they had all been baptized.' 2 It has been remarked that 'this passage is noteworthy as being the most explicit evidence in favour of sacramental confession preserved for us in the monuments of primitive monastic tradition.' There can be no reasonable doubt that Basil expected such confession to be made to priests. The reference to 'the dispensation of the mysteries' and to the sacrament of baptism would seem to be quite conclusive. The prevailing practice of the Church in his day was that when confession was made to an individual it should be made to either a bishop or a priest. That the clergy who were to hear confessions should be chosen with extreme care is only what we should expect. On the other hand there is some evidence to show that in certain quarters confession to other than priests had been allowed and encouraged. Clement of Alexandria, for example, does not confine the power of hearing confessions to the priesthood, but to the 'gnostic', or 'pneumatic'.4 Origen also insists very strongly upon the necessity of a 'skilled physician' for the healing of the soul, though his testimony in this matter is far from conclusive. And it does not follow that Basil would care to imitate the precedent set by Clement.
lt;sup>1 Cf. 1 Cor. iv. 1. Reg. Brev. 286. Besse, op. cit., p. 209.
lt;sup>4 Cf. Quis dives salvetur, c. 41; Strom. 6. 13, &c. Cf. Hom. ii. in Ps. xxxvii 'eruditum medicum' and 'satis perito medici illius consilio'; but contr. Hom. ii. in Lev. c. 4 cum non erubescit sacerdoti Domini indicare peccatum suum.
Nor was there any reason why the monks of Cappadocia should copy this peculiarity of the Christian gnostics of Alexandria. We have already shown that monasticism, as adopted for the Church by Basil, was not, as had been the case with Montanism, a 'pneumatic' movement.
The existence of a charismatic ministry, entitled to hear confessions and pronounce absolution, in the Basilian monastery, requires further evidence than has yet been brought forward. The common practice of the Church favoured sacerdotal absolution, and the monks would be most unwilling to incur a reputation for irregularity in their administration of the sacrament of penance. The practice which arose in the Eastern Church in later times that monks, whether in priests' orders or not, might hear the confessions of the people was due to an exaggerated reverence for the monastic order, and does not prove anything as to the practices observed by the monks of Basil's day within their monasteries.
There must have been some few priests available,
v.s., p. 29.
lt;sup>2 Holl, in his Enthusiasmus und Bussgewalt beim griech. Mönchthum, pp. 264 f., argues for the existence of such lay-confessors. But his arguments are not convincing and are vitiated by his erroneous conception of Basilian monasticism. Although the Monastic Constitutions more than once speak of 'the spiritual brotherhood', η πνευματικη άδελφότης, κοινωνία, οr συνάφεια, yet such expressions never occur in Basil's authentic works.
$$ Jerome says plainly that the power of the keys distinguishes the priest from the monk. Ep. 14.
lt;sup>4 Marin, Les Moines de Constantinople, p. 96, shows that in early days the superiors were almost invariably priests. It is probable that Basil intended his superiors to be in priests' orders, for he ordained his brother Peter and set him over the community by the Iris.
not only for sacramental confession, but also for the celebration of the Eucharist. There are not many references to the Eucharist in the Rules, but there is enough evidence to show that the monks did not neglect the sacrament. Thus Basil discusses the question 'With what fear, or with what assurance, or in what frame of mind ought we to partake of the Body and Blood of Christ.' He also lays down the rule that there is to be no celebration in private houses.
But elsewhere he speaks more definitely of the value and necessity of the Eucharist for the Christian life. In the Moralia he is at some pains to collect the passages from the New Testament which bear upon this question. And in one of his Letters he shows plainly with what great reverence he regarded the sacrament, and how much he valued frequent participation. The Letter is also valuable as showing us the custom of the Egyptian solitaries in this matter. Basil writes as follows: 'It is good and beneficial to communicate every day, and to partake of the holy body and blood of Christ. For He distinctly says, "He that eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood hath eternal life."5 And who doubts that to share frequently in life, is the same thing as to have manifold life. I, indeed, communicate four times a week, on the Lord's day, on Wednesday, on Friday,6 and on the Sabbath,7 and on the other
lt;sup>1 Reg. Brev. 172; cf. Reg. Brev. 309.
Reg. Brev. 310 εἰ χρὴ εἰς κοινὸν οἵκον προσκομιδὴν (=ἀναφορὰν) γίνεσθαι. Mor. 21. Ep. 93. John vi. 34.
The 'Station days'; cf. Tertull. De Oratione, 14.
lt;sup>7 Cf. Apost. Constit. vii. 27, &c. Duchesne remarks that the Synaxis of Saturday was peculiar to the East. Cf. Christian Worship, p. 232. The Pachomian monks received communion on Saturdays. v.s., p. 39.
days if there is a commemoration of any Saint. It is needless to point out that for any one in times of persecution to be compelled to take the communion in his own hand without the presence of priest or minister is not a serious offence, as experience and long custom sanction such conduct. All the solitaries in the desert, where there is no priest, keep the com munion at home and there partake of it themselves. And atAlexandria and in Egypt, each one of the laity, for the most part, keeps the communion at his own house, and partakes of it when he wishes/
Thus we see that, though the monk was mystic in the sense that his one great desire was for union with God, yet his mysticism did not lead him to neglect the ordinary means of grace as used by the Church at large. In the monastic scheme both prayer and sacrament could find their rightful place.
With regard to the Liturgy of St. Basil it is difficult to decide in what exact measure itis the work of Basil himself, and the ques tion does not concern a discussion of his Ascetica. Brightman, in his Eastern Liturgies, pp. 522, 525, gives some interesting parallels between the Liturgy and Reg. Fus. ii. 3-4, a passage on the reasons for our love of God.
CHAPTER IX
THE MONK AT WORK
IDLENESS is a charge that has very frequently been brought against the monk. It is therefore important to notice that the duty of work is most strongly insisted upon by Basil in his monastic instructions and recommendations. Although, as we have seen, the life of the monk is to be quiet and without distraction from the outside world, yet it will demand a certain degree of strenuous activity. It is not the aim of the Christian athlete to live a life of ease and repose, but of vigorous training and toilsome exercise. Thus Basil says, 'All excuse of idleness is excuse of sin: for we must manifest our zeal, as also our endurance, even unto death. And it is plain from our Lord's own words that the slothful man is convicted of wickedness. as well as sloth, for He says, "Thou wicked and slothful servant ".' 1
'We have no need to speak of the great evil of idleness, for the Apostle plainly asserts that "he who does not work, neither shall he eat". As then each of us requires his daily sustenance, so also he must work according to his strength.'
The hermit of the desert had been inclined to
Matt. xxv. 26; Reg. Brev. 69. Thess. iii. 10; Reg. Fus. 37. 2.
consider work as either a mortification of the flesh, or necessity imposed upon him solely by his own bodily requirements. In either case it was merely a self regarding obligation. Anthony, however, had set the example of work undertaken from other and higher motives the duty of providing hospitality for visitors, and above all of ministering to the poor. Basil also adopts a similar attitude towards work.
Work, he says, is to be undertaken, not merely for the sake of keeping the body under subjection, but from love of our neighbour, in order that through us God may provide sufficiency for those of the brethren who are in want, after the manner set forth by the Apostle in the Acts, when he says, In all things gave you an example, how that so labouring ye ought to help the weak."
Further, although the Gospel bids us take no thought for the necessaries of life, we are not on that account to desist from all work. For both our Lord words and those of the Apostle teach us that we are not to take thought for ourselves, or to work merely for ourselves : but by our Lord own command it is right and fitting to take thought for the wants of our neighbour, and so to work with greater diligence. 2 For thus we shall not be accused of self-love, but shall obtain the blessing of the Lord, who says, " Inasmuch as ye did it unto one of these my brethren, even these least, ye did it unto me."
The demands made upon the monk time by prayer and devotion are to be fully satisfied, but not at the
Reg. Fus. 37. i. Reg. Brev. 207. Reg. Fus. 42. i.
expense of work. The day is to be so ordered that both work and prayer may have their proper place. They are not, however, prohibitive of each other.
Since under pretext of prayer or praise men are wont to avoid their work, it must be known that, although with regard to certain matters the saying of the Preacher, " To everything there is season," is true, yet for prayer and praise, as for many other things, all times are fitting. For while our hands are engaged in work, we may with our voices, if it be possible, or rather if it serve to the edification of the faith, sing praises to God ; or if not, we may praise Him in our hearts with " psalms and hymns and spiritual songs ", and thus in the midst of our work fulfil our duties of prayer. 3
But granted the necessity and the desirability of work, the next question to be asked is, what kinds of work, what trades and professions, are most suitable for the monk. The general rule is laid down that only those occupations are to be allowed which do not interfere with or distract the ordered quietude of the monastic life. Their materials must be easily procur able, and their products such as may be sold without undue trouble, so that it will not be necessary for the monk to come into frequent or harmful contact with either men or women in the outside world.
The labour of the Basilian monk was to be pro ductive , in the sense that it was to minister to the wants of the community or the needs of the poor, and
Eccles. iii. i. Col. iii. 6.
Reg. Fus. 37. 2. Reg. Fus. 38.
not to the luxuries of the individual. In every kind of work the same rule of simplicity, utility, and cheap ness must hold good. Thus we find that weaving and shoe-making are only to be pursued for the sake of providing such apparel as is absolutely essential. Building, carpentering, smith work, and agriculture are spoken of with favour, as being necessary to the conduct of life, and are not to be rejected except when they are the cause of disturbances among the brethren, or interfere with the regular life of the community, by keeping them from their prayers and other religious exercises. Agriculture is specially recommended in that it provides the necessaries of life, and does not involve long journeys from one place to another.
Basil and Gregory, when in Pontus they first em braced the monastic life, gave themselves to manual labour, and in particular to agriculture. Gregory recalls to his friend mind their struggles with the garden which was no garden and had no vegetables , and complains that his neck and hands still bear the traces of their labours which they endured in drawing that mountainous wagon . But as numbers increased and regular monastery was established by the bank of the Iris, it would become necessary to arrange a proper system of work for the members of the brotherhood. We can gather what were the main principles of that system from incidental references in the Rules.
It is interesting to notice that Pachomius also at first gave himself to gardening and other forms of manual labour, in order that the monks under his charge might
Reg. Fus. 38. rfiv yfdu\o(pov cifjiaav, Greg. Naz. Ep. 5.
keep their time entirely free for spiritual things. But as his followers became more numerous he too was obliged to organize the work of his communities. Thus we find that there were various houses arranged according to trades and presided over by masters who were respon sible to the superior of the whole monastery.
The Pachomian community was thus a kind of labour colony in which every variety of work was carried on. But in these very large establishments it is possible that the tendency to turbulence to which we have already referred was in some degree result of their busy industrial life. Hence it is that Basil so strongly and emphatically asserts that the labour of the monks shall not be such as will endanger the devotional life of the monastery. We must give the preference to those occupations which do not disturb us, or pre vent us from " attending upon the Lord without distraction ".
In his choice of work the monk was not to be left to the mere caprice of his own wishes. The virtue of obedience, says Basil, is to be shown by cheerful acceptance of the allotted task. Even if a man be specially skilled in some one craft, he is to put obedience before all else and do the work that is assigned to him by the superior. He is also commanded to keep care fully any tools or implements which may be entrusted to him, and to remember that although he has the use of them, yet they are the common property of the brother hood, and are consecrated to the service of God.
Cor. vii. ; Reg. Fus. 38.
Reg. Fits. ; Reg. Brev. 123, 142. Reg. Brev. 143, 144.
So, too, with regard to women work, the wool which is used for weaving is to be regarded as sacred trust and impartially distributed to the sisters by their superior. 1
It is obvious that since work was obligatory upon all, production must often have exceeded the simple requirements of the community. The monks did not consume all the fruits of their assiduous labour. It became necessary, therefore, after due allowance had been made for the claims of chanty and hospi tality, to dispose of the surplus by sale. This would naturally involve occasional contact with the outside world. In the coenobitic life, however, the individual member was relieved from this responsibility, inasmuch as certain persons were officially appointed for the purpose. Basil is very careful that all commerce shall be under proper supervision. All goods are to be sold, if possible, within the confines of the monastic settle ment, even at the risk of some pecuniary loss. But if it should be necessary to go outside, both customers and markets are to be carefully selected. Those who are chosen to sell the products of the community are to lodge together and not to separate from one another, that so they may be protected from association with undesirable company, and may join together both by night and day in their regular devotional exercises, in spite of their absence from the monastery. The fairs and markets which are held at the shrines of the martyrs are to be avoided, and the monks are not to assist in perpetuating such abuses, for our Lord
Reg. Brev. 153.
Reg. Pus. 39.
Himself in great indignation cleansed the temple of its traffic.
In the conduct of the community life there was opportunity for other labour besides that of the field or the workshop. There was the obligation of service, of domestic duties within the monastery, which would afford occupation for number of persons. The work of the kitchen, of attendance at table, and other such menial tasks, seem to have been undertaken by all the brethren in course. Thus we read : In thy turn of service, both by thy bodily toil and thy words of comfort show thy love for those upon whom thou waitest, that thy service may be acceptable, as being seasoned with salt. Suffer not another to perform thy task, that thy reward be not taken from thee and given to another, and he boast himself in thy riches, while thou art humbled. Perform all the duties of thy service with carefulness and decency, as serving Christ. For " Cursed be he that doeth the work of the Lord negligently". And avoid, as if God Himself were thine overseer, the careless neglect which proceeds from arrogance and disdain, even though the task before thee be but of small account. For serving is noble work, and will procure for thee the kingdom of heaven. It is like net, full of all the virtues, and containing within itself every precept of God.
Thus in the Basilian community work was essential and obligatory, regulated and organized, dignified, and, above all, unselfish.
Reg. Fits. 40 : cf. Reg. Brev. 152. - Jcrem. xlviii. 10. DC Ren. 9.
CHAPTER X
VOCATION AND VOWS
IN any consideration of the monastic life we must necessarily concern ourselves with such questions as those of admission, profession, novitiate, and vows. When once the rule of life and conduct has been formulated, and a practical scheme of administration and discipline evolved, the problem which next presents itself is, on what terms may applicants be received, and is such reception irrevocable, as involving a lifelong obligation on the part of the individual contracting. It must first be remarked that no one, however fervent might be his desire to enter upon the monastic life, was allowed to take such a step simply and solely on his own responsibility. He was free to become a hermit or solitary, whenever he wished, and wherever conditions were favourable for such an existence. But to become a monk, he must enter community, become member of body, and itrested with the other members of that body to decide whether he should be admitted or refused.
And so we find that Basil in his Shorter Rules pre scribes that all the brethren are to be present at the reception of the postulant. The superior has no power to receive him without the knowledge and consent of the community. But admission was gradual
process, and required time for its completion. The applicant had to be examined and to undergo period of probation before he could be admitted to full membership in the brotherhood. In this preliminary period there was much to be done : the novice must become familiar with the routine of prayer and work. He must also learn the full meaning of the renunciation which he had made, and of the obligations which he had undertaken in his adoption of the religious life.
In any early monastic endeavour such as that of Basil, we shall be disappointed if we look for precise and elaborate rules as to the character and duration of the novitiate. Monasticism was still, to some extent, in its experimental stage, and detailed regulations could not as yet be formulated. Experience, however, had decided that there should be a very strict investigation followed by a considerable time of testing and pro bation. Pachomius, for example, made it rule that all applicants must wait seven days as suppliants at the door of the monastery, and endure a probation of no less than three years. Basil tells us very little as to the actual regulations for novices in the monasteries of Cappadocia. He gives directions that applicants are gladly to be welcomed. Since our Saviour Jesus Christ has said, Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and will give you rest, it is dangerous to reject those who desire by means of us to draw near unto the Lord, and to take upon themselves His easy yoke and the burden of His commandments which raises us to heaven. But yet they are to submit to careful
Matt. xi. 28. Reg. Fus. 10.
examination and a time of rigorous probation before they can be received into the ranks of the brethren. Inquiry must be made into their past life ; they are to make full confession of their sins, and their vocation is to be very carefully tested. If man who has acquired some distinction in the outside world desires to be admitted to the monastery, he is to be given the most menial tasks, in order that he may give full proof of his humility. Only when he has passed all the tests applied by such as are skilled in these matters is he to be included in the number of those who have dedicated themselves to the Lord .
Basil lays down, as we have already seen, that the novice is to learn by heart passages from the Holy Scriptures, as a means of education and training. He is also to keep silence, and only to do such work as the superior approves. In this connexion it is interesting to read what Basil advises in one of his letters, written
from Caesarea during his presbyterate : certain man, as he alleges, on condemning the vanity of this life, and perceiving that its joys are ended here, since they only provide material for the eternal fire and then quickly pass away, has come to me with the desire of separating from the life of misery and wickedness, being resolved to abandon the pleasures of the flesh, and for the future to tread the road which leads to the mansions of the Lord. Now if he is firm and sincere in this truly blessed purpose, and has in
Reg. Brev. 105.
Reg. Fus. 10 ; cf. Reg. Brev. 107.
Reg. Brev. 95 ; cf. Reg. Brev. 235-6.
Reg. Fus. 13. Ep. 23, entitled HapaOeriKr) npus p.ova^ovra.
his soul this glorious and laudable passion, loving the Lord his God with all his heart, with all his strength, and with all his mind, it is necessary for your reverence to show him the hardships and distresses of the straight and narrow way, and to establish him in the hope of the good things which are as yet unseen, but are laid up in promise for all that are worthy of the Lord. therefore write to entreat your incomparable perfection in Christ, if possible yourself to mould his character, so that, without any help from me, you may bring about his renunciation as may be pleasing to God.
See too that he receive elementary instruction in accordance with what has been decided by the Holy Fathers, and set forth by them in writing. You will take care also that all such things as are essential for true discipline may be put before him, that so he may be admitted to the ascetic life, having already of his own free will entered upon the contests of piety. For thus, having subjected himself to the easy yoke of the Lord, and by his conduct imitating Him who " for our sakes became poor " and took flesh, he may run without fail to the goal of his calling, and receive the approbation of the Lord. Though he is anxious to receive here in this place the crown of his love for God, yet have put him off, because wish in conjunction with your reverence, to train him for such contests, and to appoint over him as trainer him whom he may select from among you. For such man will exercise him well, and by his constant and blessed care make
2 Cor. viii. 9. dAeffeu avruv KO.\&S
him a tried wrestler, who will wound and overthrow the prince of the darkness of this world, and the spiritual powers of wickedness, with whom, as the blessed Apostle says, "is our wrestling." What I had wished to do in conjunction with you, let your love in Christ do without me."
This Letter is important, as showing the great pains which Basil took that the vocation of each applicant should be tried and tested, and that he should be carefully grounded by some elder monk in the duties and requirements of the monastic life. Nor is this by any means the only place where the need of training for the novice is mentioned. In one of the Shorter Rules, for example, Basil describes 'How those who have laboured long in the work of God may help those who have but recently entered upon it'. And in his treatise On Renunciation he has a long passage addressed to the novice, in which he says, 'If thou thus give thyself to a man of many virtues, thou shalt become heir to the goodness that is in him, and thou shalt be blessed above all others in the sight of God and man.'
On the termination of his novitiate the postulant was to be admitted to the brotherhood after a formal profession, and Basil gives orders that this profession is to be made in the presence of reputable witnesses. The reception of the new brother is to be an occasion for joyous thanksgiving and fervent prayer. When the youth who has been educated in the monastery
lt;sup>1 Eph. vi. 12.
lt;sup>2 The choice is left to the applicant himself.
Reg. Brev. 200. Reg. Fus. 15. 4.
lt;sup>4 De Ren. 2-4. Reg. Brev. 212.
makes his profession Basil requires that among the witnesses of his reception there shall be certain chiefs of the Church .\ Are we to suppose, then, that the clergy played a part at this solemn function ? It is quite possible that Basil wished to have the official sanction of the Church conferred upon the act of profession through which the novice was said to dedicate himself as an offering to God . It would seem that the ceremony began with a series of questions which were put to the novice, after which he made his profession in set terms by word of mouth. Hence it is probable that a definite formula was used.
In reply to the question, What kind of profession should those who wish to live together the Godlike life demand from one another ? the answer is thus given : That which the Lord has appointed for all them that would draw near to Him, saying, " If any man would come after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow me." These words may very well have constituted the actual formula of reception to which the novice was required to give his assent.
We have now to consider the character and implica tions of the monastic vow. Did Basil intend it to be merely a temporary engagement, revocable at the wish of him who made it, or was it not rather to be an irrevocable and lifelong obligation ? His opinion on the subject is clear enough. In his Longer Rules we can
TOW? irpotffTuras TWV tKK\rjffioaf. Reg. Fus. 15. 4. Ibid.
Ep. 199. Can. 19. 6fio\oyiav evapyf].
Matt. xvi. 24. Keg. Brcv. 2.
read his decision Concerning those who have devoted themselves to God, and then try to set aside their profession . Any one/ he says, who has been received into the brotherhood, and then sets aside his profession, must be regarded as sinning against God Himself, before whom and to whom he has made his vows in profession ; even as it is said, But if man sin against the Lord, who shall entreat for him ? For he who has given himself as an offering to God, and then betakes himself to another kind of life, is guilty of sacrilege, by stealing away himself, and so robbing God of His offering. On such man the brothers will do right to close their doors, even ifhe return for shelter after only a short absence. For the rule of the Apostle is plain, which bids us separate ourselves from him that is disorderly, and have no company with him, that he may be ashamed.
It is often asserted that Basil introduced the practice of irrevocable vows into the monastic life. It would certainly seem that he did his utmost to render the obligation contracted by the monk or nun as binding as possible, and that he isconscious of introducing new rigour into the practice of the Church in this matter. We have only to read his Canonical Letters together with the passage above quoted to be convinced that this is so. Whatever earlier Fathers of the Church may have decreed from kindness and compassion, the
Sam. ii. 25. Reg. Fus. 14.
So De Broglie, Helyot, Bulteau, and Montalembert. R. T. Smith, op. cit. p. 223, takes the same view. Blomfield Jackson, however, doubts whether Basil rule included formal vows of perpetual obligation in the more modern sense , St. Basil, p. lii.
virgin, says Basil, is to be regarded as the bride of Christ, and a chosen vessel dedicated to the Lord. If, therefore, she breaks her vow, she is to be punished as though convicted of adultery. This principle is ex tended to men also. In the early days of monasticism, however, before the intervention of the State, it would be difficult to enforce such vows. But yet every thing is done to impress upon the monk the fact that before God his vow is inviolable. He is bound by the laws and enactments of the Church, by the force of public opinion, and by his own conscience, even though the arm of the law cannot reach him. And indeed so far as the monastery itself was concerned, the vows made by the monk athis profession could not be recalled.
As we have already seen, inclusion in the monastic order involved renunciation, continence, and sub- \ mission to authority. It is true, then, to say that it \\ necessitated poverty, chastity, and obedience.
A certain degree of stability was also required \ of the monk. Basil lays down that he is not to leave the community into which he has been received, except for some very good reason. If, for example, the evil conduct of the brothers in the monastery renders the practice of virtue impossible, he has the right to go elsewhere. But before he does so, he is to open the eyes of the guilty brethren, and more particularly of the superior, to the peril of their case. In the event of such warning being of no avail, he leaves the society, not of brethren, but of strangers. 4
Ep. 199. 18. Ibid. 19. Reg. Fus. 14. Reg. Fus. 36; cf. Matin, op. cit. pp. 126-7.
When once the monastery has been entered, the monk is kept closely confined within its precincts. Egress is only possible with the express permission of the superior, and only those monks are to be allowed to leave the monastery whose character is above all suspicion. They are to travel in companies, that they may the better avoid the temptations of the outer world. As they journey, they are to recite the psalms and prayers prescribed by their rule. On their return, they are to be closely questioned by the superior as to the experiences they have met with on their travels. The example of the Apostle Peter, and of Paul and Barnabas, who gave the Church of Jerusalem an account of their doings, is quoted in justification of this requirement. 2
Thus the monk is to have as little contact as pos sible with the world and its affairs. Even his own parents and relations are not to be allowed to visit him. No one isto converse with the brethren, unless we are assured that his conversation is for the edifica tion and perfection of the soul/ He is only to be answered by those monks who are specially chosen for the purpose. 4
The impression produced by these stringent regula tions, as also by the irrevocable intention of profession, is that Basil wished itto be understood by the monk himself, by the Church, and by the world at large, that the adoption of the monastic life was a matter of the utmost conceivable seriousness.
Reg. Brev. 120. Reg. Fus 39; Reg. Brev. 311.
Reg. Fus. 32. i.
Ibid. 2.
In fact the monk was to be a man who would take seriously both his religion and his vocation. Rome, it has been written, died laughing. \ But early monasticism was so deeply impressed with the wide prevalence of sin and misery in the world that it was compelled to take a very solemn view of life. Thus Basil, who himself possessed very keen sense of humour, gives the order : Seeing that our Lord has condemned them that laugh, it is quite plain that for the faithful no occasions of laughter are permissible, more especially since there is such multitude of those who through their transgression of the law dishonour God, and by their sins give themselves over to death. For such men we should mourn and lament/ And elsewhere he reminds us that although our Lord Himself was, as very Man, susceptible to all human emotions, yet we are nowhere told that He ever laughed. Joy, but not laughter, is the characteristic of the Christian. In accordance with this idea the Eastern monks in later days are often spoken of as penitents . Monasticism, indeed, was an attempt to re-awaken a proper serious ness and sense of responsibility in human life and conduct.
Salvian, De Gubernatione Dei, vii. populus Romanus moritur et ridet.
(AtravoovvTes. Cf. Benedict, Regula, xlix omni tempore vita monachi Quadragesimae debeat observationem habere , the life of monk ought at all times to have about it Lenten character.
CHAPTER XI
WOMEN, CHILDREN, AND SLAVES
IT is needless to say that monasticism was never thought of as being matter which concerned men only, but rather as including women, and, in some degree, children within its scope. Christianity had done much for both women and children, and the monastic movement could not leave them out of account. In fact Gibbon, when he wishes to sneer at monasticism, says that its influence acted most forcibly on the infirm minds of children and females . But in the same paragraph he mentions that the movement was recruited from millions, of either sex, of every age, and of every rank , so that his criticism is not really worth considering. The fact is that the monastic ideal was independent of sex, and, to a large extent, of age as well.
And so we find that Basil monastic regulations and admonitions apply equally well to both men and women. In the Longer Rules we have also some mention of the relations which are to exist between the two sexes in their separate endeavours to lead the religious life, while reference is made to the opportunities provided by the monastic community for the education of children. Some of the Shorter Rules are concerned with
Decline and Fall, chap, xxxvii.
women only, but their recommendations are not in any way contrary to the regulations for men.
Basil, it is to be remembered, was induced to adopt the religious life by a woman, his sister Macrina, so that he was not likely to underestimate the monastic value of womankind. And in some sense it can be main tained that woman was first in the field with regard to the celibate and definitely religious life. Before the custom of addicting themselves for religious purposes to an unmarried life had made much progress in the Christian Church among men, it was already in vogue amongst women. In the first three centuries we find frequent mention of virgins in the Church, though they did not form a distinct order until early in the fourth century. The order of virgins was singled out for special attack by the Emperor Julian in his persecution of the Christian Church. His assault, however, did not permanently affect the popularity of the institution ; for in Basil second Canonical Letter we read that by God grace the Church grows mightier as she advances, and the order of virgins is becoming more numerous . It seems, how ever, that there were still many such women who lived amongst their families and friends without any other obligations than that of chastity, though there was gradual tendency towards incorporation into com munities. The life of the monastic sisterhood offered a more complete seclusion than was possible amid a secular environment. Hence we find that there were many com munities of women inEgypt. The sister of St. Anthony
presided over one of them, and Pachomius, at Tabennisi, allowed his sister Maria to establish a convent of nuns on the opposite bank of the Nile. Discipline was sometimes a serious difficulty amongst these sisterhoods. Palladius tells us how Dorotheus, the superintendent of a convent, used to sit at an upper window from whence he could see the inmates and stop their quarrellings. The female followers of Eustathius, Bishop of Sebaste, gave great offence to the Church by their behaviour, while what we may call the Strange Case of Glycerius and his Virgins , of which we read in Basil Letters, is not by any means an edifying story.
A very different picture is presented by the convent which Macrina, Basil sister, had founded at Annesi. St. Gregory of Nyssa has left us a very glowing account of Macrina and her nuns. Her community included her widowed mother, Emmelia, the family servants, and many women from the best families in Cappadocia and Pontus. Her young brother, Peter, the future Bishop of Sebaste, was brought up in the solitude of this retreat.
It was Macrina also who persuaded Basil to found his monastery on the opposite bank of the Iris, and the two separate but adjacent communities became the model for his monastic regulations. He had no intention of instituting any form of double monastery , and he is most careful that, in their relations with the monks, the
Laus. Hist., chap. 32.
It is to be noted that the convents of women were recruited both from virgins and widows. Even married women might be admitted with the consent of their husbands. Reg. Fus. 12.
Vita S. Macrinae, Op. iii. 971.
sisters should be under very strict supervision. yet the women are not to be deprived of the advantages afforded by the spiritual ministrations of men. Pachomius had been no less careful in this matter of sex, and had ordered that the waters of the Nile must flow between his monastery and Maria's convent. Basil too was separated from his sister by the river Iris, but his directions are in some respects less stringent than those of Pachomius. He gives orders, however, that the monks are not to converse singly with the sisters. There must never be less than two persons on either side. nor more than three.1 'All occasion of offence must be avoided, and the concourse must be such as serves to the edification of faith. Reason itself tells us that it is not fitting for one person to converse singly with another. For it is written, "Two are better than one." 2 and indeed more trustworthy. "And woe to him that is alone; for if he falleth, there is none to raise him up.'' ' 3
It was sometimes necessary to entrust certain monks with the temporal interests of the nuns. This task, however, was only to be given to men of advanced years, of tried character, and of grave aspect, who could 'dispense their words with judgement'.4
The superior himself must always exercise the greatest discretion. He must never on any account enter into any conversation, however edifying, with a nun without the presence of her own superior. His interviews
lt;sup>1 Reg. Fus. 33.
lt;sup>3 Ibid. v. 10; Reg. Brev. 220.
Reg. Fus. 33. Cf. Reg. Brev. 154.
lt;sup>2 Eccles. iv. 9.
Reg. Brev. 108.
with the superior of the convent are to be as short and infrequent as possible. He is not to override her authority by his directions. If he does so, she has every right to complain. The great care which Basil took that the relations between the monastery and the convent should be above all suspicion is exemplified in his enactment that when a sister makes her confession one of the elder sisters must be present. That there was need for such caution is obvious, especially when we consider that monasticism was still on its trial, and must be most careful of its reputation with both Church and world. But yet Basil insists that the monastic vocation is open to women no less than men, and that the adoption of the monastic life by certain of the women of his country is matter for deep thank fulness. In a Letter to the Clergy of Neocaesarea he thus writes :
And if women also have chosen to live the life of the Gospel, preferring virginity to marriage, leading captive the lust of the flesh, and living in the mourn ing which is pronounced blessed, they are blessed in their choice, in whatsoever part of the world they may be found.
We, however, have few instances of this to show, for with us people are still in an elementary stage and are being gradually brought to piety. If any charges of disorderliness are brought against the life of our women, do not undertake to defend them. One thing, however, do plainly assert, and that is,
Reg. Brev. 109.
Reg. Brev. no.
Reg. Brev. in.
that these men, with their shameless minds and unbridled tongues, are ever in their fearless audacity uttering what Satan, the father of lies, has never yet dared to say. But would have you know that we rejoice to have assemblies of both men and women, "whose conversation is in heaven," "who have crucified the flesh with the affections and lusts thereof." They take no thought for food or raiment, but ever remain undisturbed beside their Lord, continuing night and day in prayer. Their lips speak not of the deeds of men, but they sing hymns to God without ceasing, working with their own hands, that they may have to distribute to them that need.
It would be difficult to find a more eloquent eulogy of the monastic life, as it applies both to men and women, than ishere set forth.
With regard to children and their education it will be best to give Basil own words on the subject, and then add any comments which may be necessary. In the Longer Rules the question is raised as to the age at which professions should be received, and inci dentally a good deal of information is given us about the educational work of the monastery : Sinte our Lord has said, " Suffer the little children to come unto me," and the Apostle praises him who from babe had learned the sacred writings, and orders us to bring up our children " in the nurture and admonition of the Lord", we are of opinion that every age, even the very earliest, is suitable for their admission. And
Phil. iii. 20; Gal. v. ; Ep. 207. 2. Mark x. 14.
Tim. iii. 15.
Eph. vi. 4.
thus such children as have lost their parents we adopt of our own free will, being desirous, after the example of Job, to become fathers to the orphans. But those who are under the authority of their parents we admit in the presence of many witnesses, so as not to give occasion to those that seek an occasion against us, but rather to stop the mouth of them who speak evil of us. And they are to be admitted in the following manner. They will not be received at once into the membership of the brotherhood, lest they fail in their purpose and so bring reproach upon the life of piety. We shall train them rather in all godliness, as the common children of the brotherhood, assigning them, whether they be boys or girls, separate lodging and a separate table. In this way they will not show undue boldness or assurance before their elders, but rather, by not often meeting with them, will preserve due respect for them. Nor when the elder members of the brotherhood are punished for the neglect of their duties, as may sometimes happen, will the juniors be the more prompted to sin, or feel that secret pride in their hearts which may very likely come from seeing elder men fail where they themselves have succeeded. For he that is young in mind is no different from him that is young in age. And so it is not to be wondered at if the same sins are often to be found in both old and young. Nor is it right that those things which older men may do with propriety should prematurely and improperly be attempted by the young, as the result of too frequent intercourse with their elders.
And indeed, for this reason, as well as for the preserva tion of the general discipline, it is advisable that the children and the regular monks should be housed separately. For so the monastery will suffer no disturbance from such sounds as may arise from the training and teaching of the young. But the prayers which we have appointed to be said by day will be common to both children and elders. For children often feel compunction when they see the zeal of their elders and betters, while these may receive no slight help in their prayers from little children. But in matters of sleep, vigils, times of meals, quantity and quality of food, it is fitting that the children should have their own rules and customs. And let a monk, well advanced in years, and of greater experience than the rest, who has given proof of his powers of patience, be set over them, so that he may by his fatherly kindness and instructive discourse correct the faults of his young pupils, applying to each offence its proper remedy; for thus the fault will be duly punished, while at the same time the soul will be trained in habits of obedience.' Examples of such punishments, made to meet the crime, are then described.
Basil next proceeds to give an outline of the course of studies to be pursued: 'The study of letters must also be such as befits the end in view. The children will become familiar with the words of Scripture, and instead of fables, they will be told true stories of marvellous deeds, and be instructed in the wise sayings of the Book of Proverbs.¹ Prizes will be offered for
lt;sup>1 Cf. Miss Hodgson, Primitive Christian Education, p. 20: 'Mr. Quick once called the Book of Proverbs an "early treatise on education"; and unusual though the view may be, there is much in that wonderful collection of wise sayings to recommend the remark as just and justifiable.
those who can best remember both words and subjects, that our end may be attained with ease and pleasure to the children, and without any pain or unpleasantness.
Those who are educated in this way will soon become attentive, and acquire habits of concentration, if they are constantly asked by their teachers where their attention is, and what they are thinking about. For youth, by reason of its simplicity and innocence, and of its incapacity for falsehood, will readily confess the innermost secrets of the heart. And thus, in order to avoid frequent detection in wrongdoing, the child will refrain from foolish thoughts and will constantly recall his attention from them, because he fears the shame of public reprimand. l
The discussion upon education here ends, and the further question of profession is introduced. When the children have attained to years of discretion, they are to decide whether they wish to embrace the monastic life. They are to be under no compulsion in the matter, but are to make their own decision. If they wish to be professed, their profession must be made in the presence of creditable witnesses. At the same ceremony also those who have no desire for the monastic life will be solemnly dismissed.
On the general subject of education Basil was well entitled to give an opinion. According to his friend Gregory, he was a most learned and accomplished scholar. His galleon was laden with all the learning
Reg. Fus. 15. 4.
Reg. Fus. 15. 1-3.
In the case of girls, at the age of sixteen or seventeen, Ep.igg.i8.
attainable by the nature of man.' His earliest education had been undertaken by his grandmother Macrina. He had then gone to school at Caesarea, and had passed from thence to the University of Athens. He was afterwards invited by the people of Neocaesarea to take charge of the education of their young, and he tells us himself how he refused their eager solicitations. It is therefore a fact of great significance that such a man should have seen in the monastic community a powerful medium of Christian education.
It is to be remembered that the Church was not the only educational force in the time of Basil. Of the Roman Empire of that day the remark is true that 'Grammar schools were to be found everywhere, and every township of any importance possessed also teachers of rhetoric'.3 Julian, in his propaganda against Christianity, drew attention to the fact that Christians did not always receive a specifically Christian education. He passed an edict forbidding Christians to teach ancient literature, unless they first proved their honesty and piety by sacrificing to the gods.4 'This edict was to produce one or both of two results. either young Christians must grow up without classical education, which was not likely to be their choice, or they must go to the schools of the heathen, who would, if they did their duty, give them a bias towards Hellenism.' 5 It would seem that Basil was quite content that the youth in his monasteries should be
lt;sup>1 Orat. 43. 24. Ep. 210. 2.
lt;sup>3 Bigg, The Church's Task under the Roman Empire, p. 4.
Julian, Ep. 42.
lt;sup>5 Glover, Life and Letters in the Fourth Century, p. 69.
brought up without any kind of classical education.¹