BASIL AND HIS RULE
HE S. DEINIOL'S SERIES III
ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
The S. Deiniol's Series THE INSPIRATION OF PRO-PHECY. An Essay in the Psychology of Revelation. By G. C. Joyce, Warden of S. Deiniol's Library. 3s. 6d. net. DEATH AND THE HEREAFTER.
Sermons preached by HARRY DREW, Rector of Hawarden, 1904-1910. With a Memorial Sermon by H. S. HOLLAND. Edited by G. C. JOYCE. 28. 6d. net.
IN PREPARATION THE POLITICAL RELATIONS OF CHRIST'S MINISTRY: WITH A STUDY OF THE TEMPTATION. By STEPHEN LIBERTY, M.A. MR. GLADSTONE'S PLACE IN RELIGIOUS THOUGHT. By STEPHEN LIBERTY, M.A.
ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
A STUDY IN EARLY MONASTICISM
BY
E. F. MORISON, B.D.
SUB-WARDEN OF S. DEINIOI/S LIBRARY LATE SCHOLAR OF LINCOLN COLLEGE, OXFORD
THEODORET, Ep. cxlvi.
HENRY FROWDE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE AND BOMBAY
IQI2
OXFORD: HORACE HART PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
TO F. HOMES DUDDEN THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY INSCRIBED BY A FORMER PUPIL
PREFACE
I
SOME three years ago was asked to read the Ascetica of St. Basil for the Lexicon of Patristic Greek which is being compiled under the auspices of the Central Society of Sacred Study. As the contents of these writings proved to have more than a philological interest, have therefore ventured to summarize the information which they contain with regard to the theory and practice of Basilian monasticism. And have been the more emboldened to do so from the fact that the subject has received but scant attention in this country. To foreign scholars have acknow ledged my indebtedness in the bibliography appended. St. Basil himself admonishes us not to pass another knowledge for our own, as depraved women their supposititious children, but to refer it candidly to the true parent . And in the same passage he tells us not to interrupt a profitable speaker, or to desire ambitiously to put in word of one own . Hence my chief endeavour has been that St. Basil may tell his own tale.
The Ascetica have never yet been translated into English, and have therefore used my own rendering
in quotation and in the Appendix. In quoting from the Letters, have used, with few slight changes, the translations by Newman and Blomfield Jackson.
My best thanks are due to the Rev. T. J. Hardy for some useful suggestions, and to Dr. Joyce for most kindly allowing this book to appear in the S. Beimel Series.
CONTENTS
CHAPT
ER
PAGE
I.
Introductory and Historical
٠
I II.
THE RETREAT IN PONTUS .
•
9 III.
St. Basil's Ascetic Writings
15 IV.
THE INSPIRATION OF THE MONAS
STIC
Life
22 V.
THE PRACTICE OF ASCETICISM
•
31 VI.
THE COMMUNITY LIFE .
39 VII.
OBEDIENCE AND DISCIPLINE
47 VIII.
THE MONK AT PRAYER .
58 IX.
THE MONK AT WORK
79 X.
VOCATION AND VOWS
86 XI.
Women, Children, and Slaves
S .
96 XII.
FOOD AND CLOTHING
IIO XIII.
HOSPITALITY AND CHARITY
120 XIV.
Conclusion
131 APPEN
DIX A.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LONGER
Ruli
ES
137 В.
INTRODUCTION TO THE SHORTER
Rul
ES
145 C.
THE DECREES OF THE SYNOD OF
GA
NGRA
146
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I
GARNIER Basilii editio altera. vols. S. Opera, 3 (J.).
1839
MIGNE S. Basilii 4 vols. Opera. (J. P.).
1886 ALLARD Saint Basile. (P.).
1903 vols. I Apostat. Julien 3
1900 Ada BAERT Vita in S. Sanctorum, June Basilii, 14. (F.).
1867 BAUMER Geschichte des Breviers. (S.).
1895 BAYLE Saint Basile. (M. A.).
1878 BARDENHEWER Bd. Gesch. der Altkirchlichen Literatur, (O.). iii.
1912 BESSE Moines au Les d Orient anterieurs Concile de (J. M.). Chalcdoine.
1900 BUTLER The Lausiac Palladius. 2 vols. History of (C.).
1898 Mediaeval Monasticism Art. in Cambridge History, vol. i.
1911 CABROL Le Livre Priere de la antique. (F.).
1900 DE L Romain BROGLIE au V. Empire et I Eglise A.). (J. IVe ive 6 ed. vols. Siecle,
1897 FIALON Etude Saint sur Basile. litttraire (E.).
1861 FORTESCUE The Orthodox Eastern Church. (A.).
1908 GARNIER Vita in vol. S. Basilii Op. iii. (J.).
1839 GLOVER and Fourth in Letters the Life Century. (T. R.).
1901 HANNAY Monas The and Christian Origin of O.). Spirit (J. ticism.
903 1 HARNACK and Ideals its Monasticism, History (A.). (trans.).
1901 HODGSON Primitive Christian Education. (GERALDINE).
1906 HOLL und dem Enthusiasmus bei (K.). Bussgewalt griechischen Monchthum.
1898 HUNTER BLAIR The Rule 2nd Benedict. ed. St. (D. O.). of
1906 and Works. Basil. Letters JACKSON St. Select (B.).
1895 KRANICH Die Ascetik in ihrer dogmatischen Grundlage (A.). dem bei Basilius Grossen.
1896 LADEUZE Etude sur le C&nobitisme pakhomien. (P.).
1898 Cenobitisme d Art. Arch.Chr. LECLERCQ(H.). inCabrol,Zhc.
1910 LOOPS von Eusebius Art. Sebaste , in Prot. Hauck, (P.). Realencyclopadie.
1898 MARIN Moines Les de (L ABBE). Constantinople (330-898).
1897 MEYER Die Athos Haupturkunden die Gesch. der fur (P.). kloster.
1894 MORISON and Monasticism Basil in Ch. (E. St. F.). Quart. Rev. Oct. 1912.
1912
xii BIBLIOGRAPHY
NEWMAN Historical Sketches, vol. H.). iii. (J.
1873
PARGOIRE de Cesaree Basile Basiliens Art. et (Saint) (J.). d Arch. Chr. in Diet. Cabrol,
1907 Das Monchthum. SCHIWIETZ morgenlandische (S.).
1904 SMITH Fathers Basil Great the for St. (The English (R. T.). Readers).
1879 VASSON le Grand. Basile St. (L ABBE).
1894 TILLEMONT Memoires a I Histoire servir eccUsi pour (L.). vol. ix. astique,
1732 A UHLHORN Church ). Christian in ncient the Charity (G. (trans.
88 ). 1 3 WOODHOUSE and Modern. Ancient Monasticism, (F. C.).
1896 und ZOCKLER Monchthum. Askese Aufl. 2. (O.).
1897
TABLE OF DATES A.D. 316. Birth of Basil. 325. Council of Nicaea. 328. Athanasius Bishop of Alexandria. Visits Monasteries of Pachomius. 337. Death of Constantine. Succession of Constantius and his brothers Constans and Constantine. 346. Death of Pachomius. 350. Constantius sole emperor. Persecution of Catholic party. 351. Basil goes to Athens. 355. Julian at Athens. 356. Basil returns to Caesarea. Athanasius publishes his Life of Anthony. 357. Baptism of Basil. His ordination as Reader. 358. Basil visits the Monks of Egypt and Syria and retires to Pontus. 358-361. Monastic Life. Composition of Philocalia, Moralia, and the Rules. 361-363. Julian emperor. Attempted revival of Paganism. 364. Basil ordained Priest. Accession of Valentinian and Valens. Persecution of Catholics in the East. Revision of the Rules. 370. Basil Bishop of Caesarea. 373. Death of Athanasius. 374. Basil writes his treatise on the Holy Spirit. 378. Death of Valens. 379. Death of Basil. Accession of Theodosius.
ST. BASIL AND HIS RULE
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL
THERE is but slight apology needed for choosing as a subject for investigation a chapter in the history of monasticism. It may seem, no doubt, at first sight, as if monastic and ascetic ideals could have very little interest for a time such as ours, which is characterized in no small degree by a devotion to material well-being and prominent display of luxury. But our very remoteness from such ideals makes us, perhaps, all the more curious to see what attraction they can have had for those who lived by them, and to inquire whether they have any value for the world of to-day. It is matter of some interest to see what remedy was applied by the Christianity of earlier ages to the disease of materialism with which we are now beset, and to see how far the remedy was authorized and adopted by the Church in her struggles, not only with the world outside, but also with the worldly tendencies within herself.
The early Church had many difficult questions to face, of discipline as well as of doctrine. Almost from the first there had been tendency among her members
to divide into moderate and rigorist sections. Yet as long as the Church was a persecuted minority there was not much danger of general laxity. But when persecution waned and conversion to Christianity became almost conventional, there was great peril of a lowering of moral standards. Many ardent souls were tempted to think that there was no salvation for them within the ranks of a Church which was so rapidly becoming secularized. The Montanist, the Novatian, and the Donatist all alike deplored the loss of primitive rigour in the life and conduct of the Church, and abandoned her in consequence.
The hermit who left his home for the solitude of the desert, although he did not expressly renounce the Church, yet preferred, apparently, to work out his own salvation apart from the corporate life of the Christian community. And in the doctrinal controversies of the fourth century men more than ever began to despair of rinding real religion within the rank and file of the ordinary adherents to Christianity.
Were, then, the best and most earnest men to be lost to the Church, by inclusion in some puritanical sect, or by seclusion in some distant desert ?
Was not rather this spirit of dissatisfaction with ordinary Church life a force which, if rightly directed and controlled, could be used for the lasting benefit of the Christian Church ? It is to the credit of St. Basil the Great, Metropolitan of Caesarea in Cappadocia in the fourth century, that he realized the value of the monastic movement for the Church.
Monasticism was no new thing in the time of Basil.
Although it had not as yet received official sanction or recognition, it was rapidly growing into a factor with which both Church and State must reckon. The movement, which had at first been largely spasmodic and local, showed every prospect of becoming both permanent and universal. The example of the Fathers of the Desert was inspiring emulation in other lands. Basil himself tells us how he had seen and admired the monks, not only of Alexandria and Egypt, but also of Palestine, Coele Syria, and Mesopotamia. He says of them : called these men lives blessed, in that they did indeed show that they " bear about in their body the dying of Jesus". And prayed that I, too, as far as in me lay, might imitate them. The monastic endeavour was also making itself \felt in Cappadocia, and, on its first appearance, caused Basil the greatest satisfaction.
It was all-important, however, to see what form the movement would assume. There were bad, as well as good, monks in Egypt, and Basil has to acknowledge that, with regard to Eustathius and his followers, who first introduced the monastic life into Asia Minor, he had been misled, and had mistaken the cowl for the monk. Thus he says : \ So when beheld certain men in my own country striving to copy their ways, felt that had found help to my own salvation, and took the things seen for proof of things unseen. And since the secrets in the hearts
Cf. the decrees of the Synod of Gangra (given in Appendix C), and the persecution by Valens of the Egyptian monks, related in Socrates, Eccl. Hist. iv. 24.
of each of us are unknown, I held lowliness of dress to be a sufficient indication of lowliness of spirit; and there was enough to convince me in the coarse cloak, the girdle, and the shoes of untanned hide.'1 monastic movement, then, had no lack of supporters, but it required regulation and a proper surveillance, if it was to be of real permanent value to the cause of Christianity. It was Basil who undertook this task for Cappadocia, and by so doing eventually became both 'the Father of Eastern Monasticism'2 and a powerful influence upon St. Benedict when he drew up his rule for the monks of the West.
As we read the details of Basil's life we cannot help feeling that he was just such a man as the monastic movement then needed. We can endorse the statement of Vasson when he says: 'Dieu suscita un grand homme, Saint Basile, pour donner à l'ordre monastique une constitution définitive.' 3 It is noticeable that Basil is the only Father of the Eastern Church to whom the title 'Great' has been given. The work that he did was not only of local importance, but of value for the whole Church of Christ. Theodoret does not exaggerate when he speaks of 'the great Basil, light 4 of the Cappadocians, or rather of the world';5 or again, 'the great Basil, a light 4 of the world,' 6 There are many things, no doubt, which have contributed to Basil's fame in the Church—his wonderful oratory, his defence of the faith, and his administrative capacity—
Ep. 223. 3.
lt;sup>2 Cf. Adeney, Greek and Eastern Churches, p. 158. 4 φωστήρ.
lt;sup>3 St. Basile le Grand, p. 8.
Eccl. Hist. iv. Ep. 146.
but his services to the monastic cause alone constitute a sufficient claim to greatness.
It is well to consider for a moment what qualifica- \tipjasJBasJL brought to the great task which he under took, of giving to monasticism a lawful place within the thought and practice of the Christian Church. In the first place, he was essentially man of distinc tion, whose word and example must necessarily carry great weight among his contemporaries. He came of a good Christian family, whose social position could command respect in Cappadocia and Pontus. He had wealth and education, and every prospect of succeeding in whatever career he might choose to adopt. Thus when Basil, at the instigation of his sister Macrina, turned his thoughts to the monastic life, he was called upon to sacrifice very great worldly blessings. Riches, honour, family position, and a considerable reputation for learning, were all unhesitatingly re nounced. Like new Moses, says his brother, Gregory of Nyssa, he preferred the Hebrews to the treasures of Egypt. But such surrender had very special value. This magnificent example of self-denial in a person of such distinction would inevitably bring the monastic movement into notice and repute. The new adherent to the cause could not be set down as mere ignorant fanatic, unworthy of serious consideration. And further, the life thus dedicated could not be wasted, even in the mountainous wilds of Pontus.
In fact, as we have said, Basil was the very man that Or. in laud. Bus. i.
the monastic movement then required. From his own personal experience, as well as from his travels, he had a wide knowledge of his subject, his intellect enabled him to grasp its doctrinal implications, his judgment kept his enthusiasm from extravagances, while his authority as a prominent ecclesiastic in later days gave to the principles which he had asserted as young lector most valuable sanction.
Further, if Basil was to help forward the monastic cause by his adhesion, he could see plainly that the time warranted some such endeavour. The best men would naturally feel the evils of the day the most acutely. Dissatisfaction with the world as it then was would inevitably lead such men to look for other con ditions which might provide a fuller scope for the development of themselves and their religion. There was little thought of abandoning Christianity, if we except the meteoric paganism of the Emperor Julian, but only of seeking some sphere where Christian principles could more effectively find their proper application.
The Roman Empire of that day was not such as to inspire patriotism in the minds of its subjects. The idea which we derive from Basil writings of the condition of the government in the Eastern Empire at the time is very far from favourable. Basil himself often evinces a deep love for his country, for Cappadocia, or for Pontus, but not for the Empire, and certainly there can have been little in such govern-
On the influential position at this time of the bishops in the East, cf. Allard, Julien Apostat, i. pp. 113 ff.
ments as those of Constantius and Valens to evoke anything like an imperial sentiment. The social condition of the Eastern provinces is painted for us in very dark colours in Basil Letters and Homilies. Bad government had resulted in the direst misery for the poor, and was responsible for great excess^ of luxury and selfishness among the rich. The monas tic movement was in a real sense an effort after social righteousness.
Again, amid the corruptions of society, the morality of the Church had sunk to very low level. In Basil own diocese, for example, the chorepiscopi were found to have accepted money for ordinations, and to have ordained persons whose character had not been properly investigated. Yet Basil never despaired of the Church, however far her morality might have fallen, or her unity be destroyed by doctrinal dissen sions. He endeavoured at once to establish her faith, to reform her abuses, and to improve the character of her ministers. His Moralia were written more especially for the edification of the clergy. Nor was he himself destined to spend his whole life in monastic retirement. His sojourn in Pontus seems not to have lasted more than three years. But he never entirely forsook the monastic habits which he had there formed, and in the active life of his episcopate at Caesarea he was able to put into practice some of the lessons which he had learnt in the solitude of his retreat. The Episcopate of St. Basil has been well described as being remark able for its concentrated and accumulated sorrows,
and for the nobleness and fervour of spirit which confronted and endured them .
That spirit we may believe was in no small degree the result of his monastic training. Macrina had con ferred a lasting benefit upon her brother, and he, in his turn, wished that the Church at large might profit by his experience.
Bright, The Age of the Fathers, i. 366.
CHAPTER II
THE RETREAT IN PONTUS
BASIL himself has given us an account of his con version if we may use the term to monasticism. Much time had spent in vanity, and had wasted nearly all my youth in the vain labour which under went in acquiring the wisdom made foolish by God. Then once upon time, like man roused from deep sleep, turned my eyes to the marvellous light of the truth of the Gospel, and perceived the uselessness of " the wisdom of the princes of this world, that come to naught "- I\wept many tears over my miserable life,jajid prayed that guidance might be vouchsafed me to admit me to the doctrines of true religion. 2 He then describes how he had travelled in foreign countries in order that he might come into personal contact with those who were already leading the monastic life. On his return to Pontus he resolved to imitate the example of the men whose continence he so much admired. His sister Macrina and his mother Emmelia had taken up their abode by the river Iris, atjheir ancestral home of Annesi. Basil himself fixed his residence on the opposite bank of the river. He has left us a wonderful account of his place of retreat in a letter to his friend Gregory, whose company he desired.
As true lover of nature he dwells upon the enchanting beauty of the scene. After renouncing with trouble/ he writes, the idle hopes which once had about you, or rather the dreams (for it is well said that hopes are waking dreams), departed into Pontus in quest of place to live in. There God has opened on me spot exactly answering to my taste, so that actually see before my eyes what have often pictured to my mind in idle fancy.
There is a lofty mountain, covered with thick woods, watered towards the north with cool and trans parent streams. A plain lies beneath, enriched by the waters which are ever draining off upon it ; and skirted by a spontaneous profusion of trees almost thick enough to be a fence ; so as even to surpass Calypso Island, which Homer seems to have con sidered the most beautiful spot on earth. Indeed, it is like an island, enclosed as it is on all sides ; for deep hollows cut it off in two directions ; the river, which has lately fallen down a precipice, runs all along one side, and is impassable as a wall ; while the mountain, extending itself behind, and meeting the hollows in a crescent, stops up the path at its roots. There is but one pass, and am master of it. Behind my abode there is another gorge, rising to a ledge up above, so as to command the extent of the plain and the stream which bounds it, which is not less beautiful to my taste than the Strymon, as seen from Amphipolis. For while the latter flows leisurely, and swells into a lake almost, and is too still to be a river, the former is the most rapid stream know, and somewhat turbid, too, by
reason of the rock which closes on it above: from which. shooting down, and eddying in a deep pool, it forms a most pleasant scene for myself or any one else; and is an inexhaustible resource to the country people, in the countless fish which its depths contain. What need to tell of the exhalations from the earth, or the breezes from the river? Another might admire the multitude of flowers, and singing birds; but leisure I have none for such thoughts. However, the chief praise of the place is, that being happily disposed for produce of every kind, it nurtures what to me is the sweetest produce of all, quietness; indeed, it is not only rid of the bustle of the city, but is even unfrequented by travellers, except a chance hunter. . . . Does it not strike you what a foolish mistake I was near making when I was eager to change this spot for your Tiberina, the very pit of the whole earth.'1
This description of the beauties of natural scenery comes to us as a surprise, unless we are familiar with the author's Hexaemeron. There we find such passages as: 'And God said, Let there be light, and this word was a work, whence sprang nature, than which human thought can imagine nothing more delightful or more enjoyable.' Basil was not the only monastic founder who has been a lover of nature, and has given evidence of his love in the site chosen for his monastery.
Although it was solitude that Basil most desired in his Pontic retreat, yet he did not live there in isolation
lt;sup>1 Ep. 14 (Newman's translation). Hex. ii. 7.
lt;sup>3 Sir W. M. Ramsay by his careful topographical researches has made it possible to determine with approximate certainty the site of Basil's hermitage. Hist. Geogr. of Asia Minor, p. 326.
from his fellows. There were already in Pontus and Cappadocia men who were endeavouring to lead the monastic life. These and others soon assembled round Basil, and his hermitage very quickly took on the appearance of a monastery. Gregory, too, in spite of his first refusal, now joined his friend.
It is interesting to notice that, notwithstanding the jokes which Gregory had made at the expense of Basil rural retreat (out of preference, no doubt, for his own Tiberina), yet he leaves on record his honest appreciation of the advantages which that retreat afforded. Thus he says : What wrote before about our stay in Pontus was in joke, not in earnest ; what write now is very much in earnest. O that one would place me asin the month of those former days, in which luxuriated with you in hard living ; since voluntary pain is more valuable than involuntary delight. O that one would give me back those psalmodies and vigils and those sojournings with God in prayer, and that immaterial, so to speak, and unbodied life. O for the intimacy and unity of soul in the brethren who were by you exalted and made divine. O for the contest and incitement to virtue which we secured by written Rules and Canons. O for the loving labour in the Divine Oracles, and the light we found in them by the guidance of the Holy Ghost.
Basil also, in a long letter to his friend, describes with some fullness the life of the solitaries by the Iris. He touches on the blessings of retirement and separation from the world, which allow the mind to devote itself
Job xxxix. 2. \ Ep. 6.
without interruption or distraction to the things of God. Let there be/ he says, such a place as ours, separate from intercourse with men, that the tenor of our exer cises be not interrupted from without. Pious exercises nourish the soul with divine thoughts. What state can be more blessed than to imitate on earth the choruses of angels ? to begin the day with prayer, and honour our Maker with hymns and songs ? As the day brightens, to betake ourselves, with prayer attend ing on itthroughout, to our labours, and to season our work with hymns, as if with salt ? Soothing hymns compose the mind to cheerful and calm state. Quiet, then, as have said, is the first step in our sanctification ; the tongue purified from the gossip of the world ; the eyes unexcited by fair colour or comely shape ; the ears not relaxing the tone of mind by voluptuous songs, nor by that especial mischief, the talk of light men and jesters. Thus the mind, saved from dissipation from without, and not through the senses thrown upon the world, falls back upon itself, and thereby ascends to the contemplation of God/
In this same Letter we have a foretaste of Basil later and more complete monastic directions. Besides insisting upon the necessity of Scripture reading, prayer, and meditation, he enjoins that the monk is to be modest, humble, and considerate of others in even the smallest matters of conduct and conver sation. The Christian monk, as Newman says, is also to be the true Christian gentleman. We can imagine that the few years spent in the retreat in
Ep. 2. 2. Historical Sketches, iii. 64.
Pontus, with the regular round of devotional exer cises, and the constant necessity of giving counsel and advice to those under his charge, formed a very suitable environment for the composition of ascetic and monastic writings. It remains now to consider the main features of those writings, and also to decide what are our authentic sources for an account of Basil s monastic ideas.
CHAPTER III
ST. BASIL S ASCETIC WRITINGS
IT can hardly be denied that the ascetic writings attributed to Basil, and published under his name, are at first sight somewhat disappointing. The authorship of more than one of these works is doubtful, the monastic interest of many of them is very slight, while the most important of them are almost entirely devoid of anything resembling orderly arrangement or literary form. In general they may be said to present most bewildering variety both in their character and contents.
The first place in the Ascetica is occupied by three treatises on the monastic life. Their order is as follows : (i) An Introduction to the Ascetic Life, in which the ascetic is described and addressed under the figure of the Christian warrior. The army of Christ includes within its ranks both men and women. This short treatise can hardly be attributed to Basil, as both thought and expression are unworthy of him. (2) An Ascetic Discourse on the Renunciation of the World, and on Spiritual Perfection. This is a longer work, and contains nothing un-Basilian either in matter or vocabulary, while many of its expressions and senti ments remind us of Basil undisputed writings. It is an exhortation to renounce the various distractions
Cf. Batiffol, Anciennes Literatures Chrtiennes, i. 256 : homelie banale et apocryphe sur la vie Chretienne.
of the world, and to live the Cross-bearing life of the monk , giving also certain details as to the monk general behaviour in the life of community. (3) A Discourse on Ascetic Discipline : How Monk should adorn his Life. This last is a short treatise which may well belong to Basil. It resembles the preceding discourse in many of its recommendations, more especially in its exhortations to humility. 1
There can be practically no doubt that the next three works in the collection, which are closely con nected with one another, are from Basil pen, though they have unfortunately but little monastic interest. The treatise On the Judgment of God gives an account of the evil condition of the world at the time, and insists upon the certainty of God judgment, which can only be avoided by such as walk in accordance with the Gospel of our blessed God, Jesus Christ, our Lord .
The next treatise, Concerning the Faith, is simple confession and declaration of our health-giving faith , with a passing exhortation to walk worthily of the Gospel of Christ, in the hope of eternal life .
It serves, in its present position, as an introduction to the third treatise, the Moralia, or Gospel Ethics, a collection of eighty precepts or rules, founded upon the teaching of the New Testament. Whatever, there fore, the author says, in scattered passages throughout the New Testament we have found to be forbidden or approved, this we have, as far as possible, endeavoured
On a Latin version of this treatise current in the West in the fifth century see A Wilmart, Rev. Bened. xxvii. 226-233.
It was probably written after the Moralia.
to collect and sum up into rules, that it may be the more easily understood by any who wish. The Moralia seem to have special reference to the needs oTthe clergy, and of all those to whom the preach ing of the Gospel has been entrusted \. They" are not ^specifically ascetic in tone, though it is laid down that even in those things which are not expressly commanded by Scripture man should be exhorted to take the better course. . . . "He that is able to receive it, let him receive it." Yet no one is to compel others to do what he fails to do himself . The Moralia are interesting, as showing how Scripture lies at the root of all Basil moral theology, for whatsoever is not contained in Holy Scripture, being not of faith, is sin.
The next two short Ascetic Discourses cannot possibly be regarded as genuine. Neither style nor diction is that of Basil. The ascetic life, for example, is described as the life of philosophy , an expression nowhere to be found in his authentic works. These two treatises were probably written at later date and included among the Ascetica owing to similarity of subject-matter.
We come now to the two collections of Rules, which are universally allowed to have been written by Basil. Their genuineness is confirmed by strong external evidence. They are obviously by one and the same author, and the longer Rules are expressly referred to
De Fide, ad fin.
Matt. xix. 12. Mor. 70. 8. \ Ibid, chaps. 8, 9.
Mor. 80. 22.
Mor. 70. i.
in the shorter. Both are written in the same style, and employ the same vocabulary.
Further, both sets of Rules are developments of ideas expressed by Basil in the letter which he wrote to his friend Gregory, describing the life lived by himself and his companions in their Pontic retreat.
The Longer Rules were, no doubt, written during that retreat, but revised on a subsequent visit to Pontus when the author was in either priest's or bishop's orders. The principles of the monastic life are set forth in fifty-five rules or precepts, drawn up in the form of questions and answers and supported by quotations from Scripture.
The Shorter Rules 4 are three hundred and thirteen in number, and their main object is the application of monastic principles, founded upon Scripture, to the daily life of the monk, living in a community. They deal with practically the same subjects as the Longer Rules, but are generally more detailed in treatment. They were probably composed during the years of retirement, but revised and published in their present form after Basil's ordination.
The other Ascetica attributed to Basil cannot be considered as authentic, and are of no direct value for our
lt;sup>1 Ep. 2.
lt;sup>2 "Οροι κατὰ πλάτος, Regulae Fusius Tractatae.
lt;sup>3 See Appendix A, p. 146: 'Woe is unto me, if I preach not the Gospel.'
quot;Όροι κατ' ἐπιτομήν, Regulae Brevius Tractatae.
lt;sup>5 See Appendix B, p. 147: 'We who have been entrusted with the ministry of the word.' Rufinus in his Latin translation reduced the two collections to one, containing 203 Regulae. It was in this form that they were known to St. Benedict.
investigation. The Monastic Constitutions, which obviously cannot have been written by the author of the Rules, have been assigned to Eustathius of Sebaste, but were probably composed at a later date in a country where both anchorites and monastic communities were to be found in large numbers.
As sources, then, for Basil's monastic ideas we are entitled to use the three treatises, On the Judgment of God, Concerning the Faith, and the Moralia, together with the two collections of Rules. And as a matter of fact we find that these five works alone were considered by Photius to comprise the Ascetica of Basil. We shall be able to supplement the information obtained from these writings by the two treatises On Renunciation and On the Ascetic Discipline, both of which, as we have seen, may well belong to Basil. The Letters also (where genuine 3) supply us incidentally with a certain amount of useful material for our discussion.
A review of these sources shows us that, while they leave much to be desired, yet a good deal can be made of what they give us. We can form a very fair idea of the life in a Cappadocian monastery of those days, even though we cannot be said to possess a definite and detailed Rule of St. Basil. For Basil's monastic writings everywhere presuppose that the monastic community is already in existence, while
¹ 'Ασκητικαὶ Διατάξεις πρὸς τοὺς ἐν κοινοβίῳ καὶ καταμόνας ἀσκοῦντας.
lt;sup>2 The Epitimia, a detailed penitential code, are certainly not Basil's. Cf. Reg. Brev. 106 on the question of punishments.
lt;sup>3 The authorship of Epp. 42-6, which deal with monastic topics, is extremely doubtful.
details of administration are left very largely to the discretion of the superior.
The Rules, in particular, are devoid of anything resembling orderly or systematic arrangement. Though they have been described as Monastic Catechisms , yet they have scarcely enough sequence to deserve such description. In their form they may not unreason ably be compared to the Answers to Correspondents in modern religious newspaper. It is possible, how ever, to extract from their somewhat disjointed expres sions a very good idea of the principles by which their author was actuated. Although the questions are most varied in character, the answers one and all reflect the ardent but eminently practical devotion of their author. Yet the Rules are very largely impersonal in character. The author effaces himself, in order to show that the sole authority for his monastic precepts and instructions is Holy Scripture. The Bible is to be the foundation upon which all monastic legislation is to rest. Scrip ture itself is be the only Rule, and the life of the monk is to be truly evangelical .
In this connexion the remarks of modern biographer of our Saint are worth quoting. It will probably surprise many persons to be told that the key to St. Basil s asceticism is found in his devoted submission to the authority of Holy Scripture. He is so far from claiming any right to go beyond Scripture that he thinks it necessary to apologize for even using words which are not found in the Bible. Those, therefore, who would understand him must divest themselves
Cf. Zockler, Askese und Mdnchtum, p. 287.
in the first place of that vague association of the Fathers with extra-Scriptural tradition which exists in many minds ; and in the next place of that firm persuasion which many good Protestants entertain, that nobody ever loved the Bible or understood its value before the Reformation/
R. T. Smith, St. Basil the Great, p. 212.
CHAPTER IV
THE INSPIRATION OF THE MONASTIC LIFE
IN any consideration of monasticism we have to take into account the influence of two factors, namely, mysticism, or the craving of the soul for union with God, and asceticism, or the desire for a purification of the soul by renunciation and self-denial. The relation ship of these two factors must very largely determine the form of any monastic endeavour.
It is therefore of great importance to see what position each of them respectively occupies in Basil recommendations for the monastic life.
As we read his writings it becomes obvious that, for him at least, asceticism is a means, not an end, and that the aim of the true Christian is union with God. For the attainment of such an end asceticism is neces sary the eye must be fixed upon the mark, and turned away from all else. The attention will be so firmly riveted upon the one idea that even the left hand will not know what the right hand doeth \ But the degree of asceticism practised must be such as will further and not hinder the great end in view. The monastic life is valuable, not primarily because of its renunciation, but because such renunciation allows of
Reg. Brev. 197.
Cf. Reg. Fus. 18-19, 128. Reg. Brev. 139.
greater concentration upon the attainment of real blessedness. It is, in fact, the mystical element which predominates in Basil's treatment of the monastic ideal. The love of God, involving also the love of our neighbour, is to be the chief motive of the Christian life, whether in the cloister or in the world. God as our Creator and Benefactor demands the love of His creation. 'We love our Creator because we are made by Him, in whom we delight, and of whom we must always think, as children of their mother.' 'The lack of love is for the soul the most intolerable of all evil.' 1 'Wherefore should we not love God, if we receive His benefits with gratitude and gladness? for He is the Author of many and great blessings, and there is already in each healthy soul a disposition to love, implanted, as it were, by nature, and not by teaching.' 2 'We owe love to God, and we have the faculty to love God, which was put into us as soon as we came into being.'3
Furthermore, God, as being the chief Good, is the object of all desire. God is our Creator, our Goal, and our End. The recognition of this fact results in worship, prayer, and the unreserved surrender of man to God.
Even though man by the fall showed himself to be unworthy of the supernatural grace and distinction received from his Creator, yet it is still possible for him to attain to union with God, through the Cross of Christ.
lt;sup>1 Reg. Fus. 2. 2.
lt;sup>2 Reg. Brev. 212.
Reg. Fus. 2. 1.
Ibid.
After the first man was beguiled by the serpent, and was counselled in sin, and through sin met death, and through death misery, God did not forget him. . . . We are not forgotten by the goodness of God, and although by our insensibility towards the kindness of God we have sorely offended our Benefactor, yet we cannot efface His love for us, but we are again brought back from death, and again made alive by our Lord Jesus Christ Himself. . . . Nor did it suffice Him merely to call us back to life, but He has also granted us the dignity of His Godhead, and has prepared for us ever lasting rest, which in greatness of joy far exceeds all human thought. l
Jhe ascetic trains himself for heaven. long for one gift, says Basil, strive after only one glory, the glory of the kingdom of heaven. The doctrine of the heavenly goal is for Basil at once the point of departure and the object of attainment for all ascesis. \ Whenever this divine beauty has illuminated any of the saints, it has left in them an intolerable stimulus of desire, so that weary of this present life, they cry, " Woe is me, that my sojourning is prolonged ! When shall come to appear before the presence of God ? " 2 Basil is not afraid to describe the heavenly blessedness in the most glowing colours. But the chief joy of heaven will be the reward of faith, the beholding face to face. The hope of heaven is to be spur to our life here upon earth. How long shall we put off our obedience to Christ, who has called us to His heavenly
De Asc. Disc, ad Jin.
Reg. Fus. 2. 3. \ Pss. cxx. ; xlii. 2. Reg. Fus. 2. i.
kingdom ? This is the time of repentance, that of reward : this of toil and labour, that of receiving wages : this of patience, that of comfort.
On the general subject of the motives from which men lead a Christian life, Basil has some interesting remarks, which further emphasize the central position of the Love of God in his moral theology.
To sum up, he says, perceive that there are three different dispositions which inevitably lead us to obey. Either through fear of punishment we turn away from that which isevil, and so are of slavish disposition ; or, seeking to make gain by the reward, we fulfil the commandments for the sake of their benefits, and for this reason are like men of gain ; or else we do good for the sake of the good itself, and from love of Him who gave us the law, rejoicing that we are thus thought worthy to serve the great and good God, and so we have the disposition of sons.
Although Basil invokes the fear of God judgement as an incentive to virtue, that we may be able to flee from the wrath that is to descend upon the sons of disobedience, yet he never assigns to fear the first place. The expectation of the Coming of the Lord is a wholesome corrective to procrastination. Let us hearken diligently to that which isspoken, and seek earnestly to carry out the divine decrees, for we know not on what day or at what hour our Lord will come. Wherefore, in view of the shortness of the time, there is need of a special moral effort.
Reg. Fus. Introd. i.
De Jud. ad fin.
Ibid. chap. 3.
Reg. Fus. Introd. ad fin.
'Shall we not set before our eyes that great and terrible Day of the Lord?' As in the New Testament, so also in Basil, eschatology is a strong motive of asceticism, but not its prime cause. Again, the rewards of heaven are conditional upon a strictly moral life, 'the careful life of the Gospel.' Honours and crowns are for conquerors. Who would ever crown him who had not even stripped for the fight? For it is necessary not only to conquer, but also to contend lawfully, according to the words of the apostle; that is, not to neglect even the smallest of such things as have been commanded.' 4
For the true Christian, then, love is to be the dominant motive for the life of virtue. 'As a son let him love God with all his heart, and strength, and mind, and might.'
With the love of God as the centre of all religious and moral activity, important results must necessarily follow. In the first place, the love of our neighbour is inseparably bound up with our love of God. Thus Basil says, 'It is possible, therefore, through the first commandment to fulfil the second also, and through the second to return again to the first; and so he who loves the Lord, loves in consequence his neighbour.' 6 Hence, as we shall see, it is in the community life that the man of God is perfected. For Basil the Christian
lt;sup>1 Reg. Fus. Introd. 1; see Appendix A, p. 138.
lt;sup>2 On the connexion between eschatology and asceticism in the Gospels see an article in the Expositor, May 1911, by the present writer.
Ibid. την ἀκρίβειαν τοῦ εὐαγγελίου.
lt;sup>4 Ibid. chap. 2. Reg. Fus. 3. 2.
lt;sup>5 De Asc. Disc. 2.
ascesis involves socijl\activity\as well as individual moral efiort. Furtfter, on the central position of this active love of God inthe Christian ascetic life Basil also says, It must be known that this is only one virtue, but that through its efficacy all commandments are ful filled and included. For " he that loveth Me ", says the Lord, " will keep My commandments." Finally, we may summarize Basil teaching on the motive and aim of Christian ascesis in his words : Since for our works goal and rule is proposed, namely, that we fulfil the commandments in way pleasing to God, so no work can be truly done except when it is fulfilled according to the will of the commander. Let us carefully endeavour, then, in every work only to do the will of God, and so by remembering this we shall attain to union with God.
The great advantage of the ascetic life of renuncia tion is that it makes possible the uninterrupted practice of the presence of God and of the imitation of Christ. Thus the question is asked, How may we do all things to the glory of God ? and is answered, If we do all things according to God and His commandments, and in nothing look for the praise of men. The habitual practice of living in the presence of God results in continuous and unbroken devotion to prayer, if we are assured that God is ever before our eyes. In attention is best avoided when we remember that God is ever in our midst, that His Holy Spirit is with us
John xiv. 23 ; Reg. Fus. 2. i.
Reg. Fus. 5. avvdiTTfaOai TO) 6eo5.
Reg. Brev. 195. \ Reg. Brev. 201.
to quicken us with His gifts, and that the holy angels watch over each one of us. 1
Our thoughts will not wander if we carry about the holy thought of God as an indelible seal, impressed upon our heart by constant and pure memory. For thus we shall be partakers in the love for God which both inspires us to the fulfilling of the Lord commandments, and is itself by them preserved evermore undisturbed.
The imitation of Christ is also very necessary for those who would lead the true life according to the Gospel of Christ . The virtue of humility is best learnt from Christ Himself. For humility is the imitation of Christ, and the knowledge of godliness is the knowledge of humility and meekness. If the soul, says Basil, wonders at the greatness of the obedience and humility of Christ, that such and so great a one obeyed His Father even unto death, for the sake of our life, believe that it is led at once to love God the Father, " Who spared not his own son, but gave him for us all ; " and also to love His onlybegotten Son, who for the sake of our redemption and blessedness was obedient unto death. And in general Basil exhorts his readers to become imitators of Christ, and not of antichrist, of God, and not of the enemy of God \ Again he says, This is the goal of Chris tianity, the imitation of Christ in the measure of His humanity, as far as the vocation of each man permits. 7
Reg. Brev. 306.
Reg. Fus. 5. 2.
De Fide, 5.
De Ren. 10.
Rom. viii. 32. Reg. Brev. 172.
De Ren. ibid.
Reg. Fus. 43. This idea is much more prominent in the Monastic Constitutions.
We have seen, then, from BasiTs\\own words that the inspiration for the monastic lifejs^ the love of GodL^ It is this which supplies the monk with his enthusiasm. But we are not thereby justified in emphasizing the points of affinity between Montanism and Monasticism, by which the latter is seen as a continuation of the Montanist spirit and purpose - There is no trace of revivalist fanaticism in Basil presentation of the careful life of the Gospel . The monk is primarily / \f^ one who loves God, and desires to imitate Christ. He is never represented as the pneumatie . Spiritual fervour is to be found in fulfilling the will of God from love of Jesus Christ our Lord, as it is written, He will have great delight in his commandments . Further, the monastic life depends entirely upon the teaching of Scripture ; it is the life of the Gospel, and necessitates no new revelation, no prophet declaring new truths to his separatist followers. In fact Basil is able to show that the monastic ideal is in no way foreign to the true spirit of Christianity, that its life is no narrow sectarian Puritanism, and that its faith is the one, true, orthodox faith of Catholic Christendom.
It is, indeed, most noticeable how very careful Basil always is that the true motive of the monastic life should be discerned. For him ascetic practice is inevitably founded upon dogmatic theory, and right conduct depends upon right faith. His own training and his experiences as a champion of the orthodox faith con vinced him of the necessity of sound doctrine, and he
Allen, Christian Institutions) p. 141.
Ps. cxii. i. Reg. Brev. 259.
dreaded lest the monastic movement should be associated with any of the heresies of the day. He wished the monastery to be place where the faith was both accurately believed and carefully put into practice. It might thus become valuable bulwark of orthodoxy. Faith working through love is, according to Basil, the distinguishing mark of the Christian, and it is the motto of all his ascetic instructions and regulations. Thus he says, at the end of his treatise On the Judg ment of God, Remembering the words of the Apostle, " In Christ Jesus neither circumcision availeth any thing, nor uncircumcision ; but faith working through love," therefore thought it both fitting and needful that should first expound our godly and sound faith, and then add a discourse on morals. And in his treatise On the Faith he remarks in this connexion : Wherefore we choose our words carefully and with discernment, using always such words as may serve for the protection and edification of the faith at one time making strong resistance against those who try to destroy the faith by the craft of the devil, at another expounding the faith in simpler and gentler fashion to such as would be edified therein. . . . But now our only task is to make simple confession and declara tion of the soundness of our faith.
In conclusion we may say that for Basil the soundness of our faith and the true manner of life are inseparable, for by these two things the man of God is perfected .
Cf. Reg, Brev. 124. The company of heretics and pagans is to be avoided.
MOY. 80. 22. De Fide, 2.
Reg. Brev. Introd. Cf. Ep. 295.
CHAPTER V
THE PRACTICE OF ASCETICISM
WE have already remarked that according to Basil asceticism is a means, and not an end. The end isunion with God, which may involve, as the means for its more complete attainment, separation from the world. The monk is he who concentrates his whole attention upon the things of God, and allows nothing to distract him from this all-absorbing purpose. He is prepared to give up everything, if only he may obtain the Pearl of great price.
No doubt it is true that every Christian is bound to strive after the perfection which consists in the love of God and our neighbour. All men, whether they be monks or whether they be married, must give account of their obedience to the Gospel. . . . For Christ, when He was proclaiming the commands of His Father, spoke to those who are in the world ; and if it happened that He was questioned privately, He would affirm openly, " What say unto you, say unto all." Yet Basil makes a distinction. There is to be a class in which perfection is sought by special means and under special conditions. For this cause God, who loves mankind and ever cares for our salvation, divided the life of man into two estates, namely, matrimony and virginity. 2
Mark xiii. 37. De Ren. 2. Ibid. i.
The first condition demanded is solitude, namely, seclusion, not from our neighbour, but from the dis tractions of the world. Basil often enlarges upon the advantages of such a solitude as he had himself enjoyed in his retreat by the Iris. Thus in a letter to his friend Gregory he writes, Quiet is the first step towards the cleansing of the soul. Solitude is of the greatest use, inasmuch as it stills our passions, and gives room for principle to cut them out of the soul. And in the Longer Rules, while dealing at some length with this question, he thus describes what he considers are the chief benefits to be derived from the life of solitude :
In it we overcome our former manner of life in which we neglected the commandments of Christ (and this conflict is not light, for habit, strengthened by length of time, has acquired the force of nature), and so we are enabled to eradicate the stains of sin by earnest prayer and constant attention to the will of God ; for we cannot possibly apply ourselves to such contemplation and prayer amid the many things which distract the mind by leading it to worldly cares. And again he says, Each one of us must at least know that we cannot keep any other commandment, nor even fulfil the love of God and our neighbour, if we digress in our thoughts, now in one direction, now in another.
Yet solitude, considered merely as physical separation from contact with the outer world, is not sufficient. Think not that every one within cell is saved, whether
Cf. Reg. Fus. 6 on dvayKcuov TO \ Ep. 2. 2.
Reg. Fus. 6. I.
he be good or bad ; for it is not so. Many, indeed, approach the life of virtue, yet few take up its yoke. x Wherefore Basil further shews that those who devote themselves to the monastic life should adopt another indispensable practice, namely, Renunciation.
He who would follow the Lord truly must free himself from the bonds of the passions of this life ; /and this is done by complete abandonment and disregard of the old manner of life. There are various stages in the process of renunciation. A beginning is made with the discarding of all outside belongings, such as property, empty fame and honour, the social connexions and ties of this life, which are all unneces sary and useless things. But he who renounces must go further than this. He must practise self-renuncia tion, self-denial, as well as renunciation of the world. \ Complete renunciation isachieved when manno longer loves his life, but has the sentence of death in himself, so that he does not trust himself. This demands that there shall be no shrinking or holding back, but that every earthly good be cheerfully resigned. For if we keep back some earthly possession, or some tran sitory good, the soul, since it is, as it were, immersed in the mud here below, can never rise to the sight of God, and can never be inspired with a desire for the heavenly beauty and the blessings that are promised us, unless a strong and continuous impulse moves us to desire it, and makes the toil for it light. 6
Renunciation, then, though all-important, is not an
De Ren. g.
Reg. Fus. 8.
Reg. Fus. 8. i.
dirorayri.
Ibid. Ibid. 3.
-\ end in itself. It is rather to be considered as a necessary condition for the attainment of Christian, perfection, in that it provides freedom for the soul to develop that which isits highest faculty, the power to love God.
The third requisite for the life of Christian perfection is Continence, or Temperance, which may be described as the development and completion of renunciation. It keeps the soul free when once it has been liberated by the act of renunciation. The monk must therefore form the habit of continence.
In the first place, the continent man will rise superior Si- to the enticements of passion and desire. He who is above all passion and feels none of the incitements of lust, or even any treacherous inclination, but behaves himself with courage and resolution in regard to all sensual and shameful pleasures, is perfectly continent. Con tinence is that abstinence from pleasant things which aims at the conquest of the proud flesh and the attain ment of the goal of religion/ 3
But continence affects every department of life, and is not only the mother of chastity and the friend of health , but is productive of all the virtues. Thus, He who is continent in respect of the desire for honour, is also humble ; he who in respect of riches is continent,! fulfils the Gospel measure of poverty ; he who rules\ his indignation and anger, is kindly. And indeed the: true observance of continence fixes a measure for the tongue, a limit for the eyes, and refrains the ears from
f^KpcLTfia.
Reg. Fus. 6. 2.
Reg. Fus. 17. i.
Reg. Fus. 18.
curious hearsay. But he who does not persevere in all these things is incontinent and unruly.' \\footnote{\text{\chi}}
'If a man avoids even the greatest sins, but is overcome by one, he is not continent.' 2 Continence is therefore a central point in the truly moral life. It is the suppression and negation of all evil, and the affirmation of all goodness. 'He who is perfectly continent is plainly free from all sin.' 'Continence is the mainspring of the spiritual life, and wins for us the blessings of eternity.'3
In order to illustrate the place of continence, or temperance, in the life of virtue Basil employs the scriptural analogy of the athlete and the soldier. He quotes St. Paul: 'Every man that striveth in the games is temperate in all things,' 4 and he addresses the monk as 'thou that desirest to become a fellow-soldier of Christ's holy disciples', while he exhorts him 'to be instructed by the Scriptures in the art of warfare'.5
It is, indeed, of the utmost importance always to bear in mind how thoroughly scriptural is Basil's treatment of asceticism. The ascetic life is described as 'walking in accordance with the Gospel of our blessed God. Jesus Christ our Lord'.6 The ascetic is one who practises with a view to perfection, and trains himself, by means of solitude, renunciation, and continence, for the attainment of the one great prize, union with God. Christian continence is no Stoic apathy,7 and Basil does
lt;sup>1 ἀκρατης καὶ ἀκόλαστος. Reg. Fus. 16. 3. Reg. Fus. 17. 2. 2 Tim. ii. 5. Reg. Fus. 16. 1, 18. 1. De Jud. 8. 3 Ibid.
lt;sup>5 De Ren. 2.
lt;sup>7 In Ep. 4, however, Basil playfully describes himself as 'an admirer of Zeno, Cleanthes, and Diogenes'.
not speak of the ascetic life as the life of philosophy \ l Further, monastic morality is in no sense Manichaean. Matter is not in itself evil, and Basil has Homily to the effect that God is not the Author of Evil . Elsewhere he says, Nothing, if it were bad in itself, would have been created by God. " For every creature of God is good, and nothing is to be rejected, if it be received with thanksgiving." So also the command ment of the Lord does not teach us to avoid or cast away possessions as things evil in themselves, but to dispense them rightly. 3
The degree of asceticism to be practised is to be such as will not unfit the monk for his work. The question is asked, Whether he who would practise continence beyond his strength, so that he isprevented from fulfilling that which iscommanded him, should be encouraged . To this the reply is as follows : This question does not seem to me to be rightly propounded. For continence does not consist in mere abstention from food, which results in the " severity to the body condemned by the apostle, but in the perfect abandon ment of our own private wishes. Thus Basil lays down that with regard both to fasting and work the universal rule holds good, Do all to the glory of God.
The competitive asceticism, as we may call it, of the Egyptian hermits had resulted in considerable degree of spiritual pride. Hence it is that Basil so often
As does the author of the Monastic Constitutions.
Horn. 9.
Reg. Brev. 92 ; Reg. Fus. ; Tim. iv. 4.
Col. ii. 23 ; Reg. Brev. 128. Reg. Brev. ; Cor. x. 31.
insists upon the necessity of humility. One of the greatest advantages of the community life is that it provides opportunity for the practice of this virtue. We even get the stipulation made in Basil Rules that there is to be no scramble for the last place at table. Humility itself may breed contention, if it be not regulated.
Fialon has not inaptly remarked of Basil asceticism, Cetait la rigueur de ascetisme oriental qui se pliait a Pindulgence grecque. Continence indeed was the avoidance of all excess, whether of indulgence or absti nence. The asceticism which Basil required aimed at bodily training, not bodily extinction, at a discipline, and not an abnegation of the will. And, as we have seen, the mystical element, the craving for union with God, was never submerged in the ascetic desire for purification by self-denial.
It is interesting in this connexion to notice the remarks of modern writer on the question of the place and motive of asceticism :
The adjective "ascetic" is applied to conduct originating on diverse psychological levels, which might as well begin by distinguishing from one another, (i) Asceticism may be mere expression of organic hardihood, disgusted with too much ease ; (2) temper ance in meat and drink, simplicity of apparel, chastity, and non-pampering of the body generally, may be fruits of the love of purity, shocked by whatever
Reg. Fus. 21.
Etude litUvaive sur Saint Basile, p. 178. Cf. Basil, Ep. 207. 2, We, in comparison with the perfect (i. e. the monks of Egypt), are children.
savours of the sensual ; (3) they may be also fruits of love, that is, they may appeal to the subject in the light of sacrifices which he is happy in making to the Deity whom he acknowledges. l
In the case of Basil the ascetic practices which he recommended were essentially fruits of love .
William James, Varieties of Religious Experience, pp. 296 f.
CHAPTER VI
THE COMMUNITY LIFE
IT remains now to consider how Basil put his monastic principles into practice. Monasticism had already found many forms of expression. The first endeavours seem to have been entirely eremitical in character, but it was not long before the individual ascetics were brought together into communities. In Egypt monasticism developed along two lines, the Antonian and the Pachomian. When Anthony with drew to the desert and lived a life of complete seclusion, many serious Christians, inspired by his example, came and settled near his retreat. After twenty years of life as a hermit, Anthony was induced to come forth and undertake the direction and organization of the numbers of monks who were now living around him. But such organization would seem to have been very loose and almost entirely voluntary. Thus Palladius tells us with regard to the monks of Nitria, In Mount Nitria there are five thousand monks following different manners of life, each according to his power and desire ; so that any one may live alone, or with another, or with several companions. He also says, They assemble at the church only on Saturday and Sunday.
Although the eremitical form of monasticism tended to die out, yet the Antonian monk still had much of
the hermit independent solitude, and his life may not incorrectly be called semi-eremitical.
But about this same time Pachomius, young monk who had been trained by the hermit Palaemon, founded his first monastery at Tabennesi, near Denderah, by the Nile. Palladius visited Pachomian monastery at Panopolis, and has left us very vivid picture of ) the life in that community. It appears to have been \ a life of the most varied activity. There was a fixed \?J routine of Church services, Bible reading, and manual labour. All kinds of trades and occupations were pursued for the general good of the monastery and the benefit of the poor. Each monk had his own special task allotted to him and a place of residence according to his particular occupation. A minimum of ascetic practice was enjoined, but individual efforts after severer self-denial were encouraged. The funda mental idea of St. Pachomius Rule was to establish a moderate level of observance which might be obli gatory upon all ; and then leave it open to each and indeed to encourage each to go beyond the fixed minimum, according as he was prompted by his strength, his courage, and his zeal. Thus some of the monks, Palladius tells us, ate only every second day, others only every third day, and some every fifth day. As in the Antonian system, there was a large element of voluntariness, of individual effort, while as yet there was no full and proper idea of a corporate monastic life.
We have seen how for Basil monastic regulation See Butler, Lausiac History of Palladius, i. pp. 233 ff.
invariably depends upon dogmatic considerations. Hence we are not surprised that he gives at some length the principles illustrated as always by scrip tural quotations which led him to prefer the coenobitical form of monasticism. have learned/ he says, that a life lived in common with others is more useful for many purposes. In the first place, even in the matter of bodily needs, no man is sufficient to himself, but we require each other aid in the provision of such things as are necessary to life. ... In the solitary life what we have isuseless to any one else, and what we ourselves want cannot be supplied. . . . And further, the law of the love of Christ does not permit each one of us to regard his own things alone. For "Charity seeketh not her own ", The life of complete seclu sion has only one aim, that each may serve his own needs. But this is plainly opposed to the law of charity which the Apostle fulfilled, who sought not his own profit, but the profit of many, that they might be saved.
Moreover, it is not easy for one who lives alone to discover his own faults, since he has no one to reprove him, or correct him in gentle and kindly fashion. For the reproof even of an enemy will oftentimes implant desire for amendment in man of good sense, but fault is only properly amended by one who loves sincerely. For He that loveth instructeth diligently ". And in solitude, when man has no companionship in his life, it is impossible to find such an adviser. Wherefore ithappens to him as it is written, " Woe
Cor. xiii. 5.
Prov. xiii. 24.
to him that is alone, for if he falleth, there is none to raise him up."
Again, there are many commandments which can easily be performed by many gathered together, but not by one man alone, for in performing one we are hindered from fulfilling the rest. Thus the visitation of the sick will hinder man from receiving guests, and the dispensing and distribution of the necessaries of life (especially when much time is spent upon such service), will hinder him from a zealous attention to his customary work, and so great and salutary com mandment is broken, since neither is the hungry fed nor the naked clothed. Who, then, would choose to live this inactive and unfruitful life rather than that which isfruitful and in accordance with our Lord commandment ?
And if all who are called in one hope of their calling are one body in Christ, have Him for their head, and are members one of another, how can we be so, except through union in one body by the Holy Spirit ? . . .
Further, since no one man is sufficient in himself to receive the gifts of the Spirit, but according to the measure of each man faith the Spirit is granted to him, in the common life each man gift becomes the common property of his fellows. . . .
But there are other dangers in the solitary life besides those we have already described. The first and greatest danger is that of self-complacency. For ifa man has no one to examine his actions, he will think that he has already achieved the perfect fulfilment of
Eccles. iv. 10. Rom. xii. 6. avrapfffKcia.
the commandments, and, since his conduct is never tested, he neither notices his shortcomings, nor per ceives any progress which he may have made, for the very reason that he has deprived himself of all oppor tunity for fulfilling the commandments.
For how will he practise the virtue of humility, if there is no one to whom he may show himself humble ? How will he show pity, if he is cut off from the society of others ? Or how will he show forbearance, if there is no one to oppose his wishes ? But if some one say that instruction in the Holy Scriptures is sufficient for right conduct, he islike one who learns how to weave, but never weaves anything, or is taught the smith art, but never deigns to put into practice what he has learnt. To such man the Apostle would say, " Not the hearers of a law are just before God, but the doers of a law shall be justified/ \ For we see that our Lord Himself, from His exceeding great kindness, did not rest content with words or precepts, but expressly set before us an example of humility in the perfection of His love. For indeed He girded Himself and washed His disciples feet. Whose feet will you wash ? To whom will you be servant ? Among whom will you be the last of all, if you live alone by yourself ? How can that good and joyful thing, the dwelling together of the brethren, which is likened by the Holy Spirit to the precious ointment that ran down from the high-priest head, be accomplished in the life of the solitary ?
The dwelling together of the brethren isindeed a field for the contest of athletes, a noble path of progress,
Rom. ii. 13.
continual training, and constant meditation upon the commandments of the Lord. It has for its one aim and end the glory of God, according to the com mandment of our Lord Jesus Christ, who says, "Let your light so shine before men that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father which is in heaven." Such a life bears the same stamp as that of the saints of whom we read in the Acts, " And all that believed were together, and had all things common." And again : "And the multitude of them that believed were of one heart and soul : and not one of them said that aught of the things which he possessed was his own : but they had all things common."
These remarks upon the theoretical and practical superiority of the community life have been quoted at length with view to showing how careful Basil always is that his monastic scheme shall be at once scriptural in principle and practicable in application. Life in common is declared to be following of the life of the Apostles, and the best realization of the corporate fellowship described by St. Paul under the simile of the body and its members. The love of God and neighbour can find its fullest expression in the monastic congregation, where all co-operate in their endeavour after perfection.
In this connexion itis interesting to read a letter addressed by Basil to community of monks. He thus writes : do not think that I need further commend you to God grace, after the words that
Matt. v. 6. Acts ii. 44.
Acts iv. ; Reg. Fus. 7.
addressed to you in person. then bade you adopt\ the life in common, after the manner of living of the Apostles. This you accepted as wholesome instruction, and gave God thanks for it. Thus your conduct was due, not so much to the word spoke, as to my instruc tions to put them into practice, conducive at once to your advantage who accepted, to my comfort who gave you the advice, and to the glory and praise of Christ, by whose name we are called. For this reason have sent to you our well-beloved brother, that he may rouse you from your sloth, and may bring report to me of opposition . For great is mydesire to see you all united in one body, and to hear that you are not content to live a life without witness ; but have undertaken to be both watchful of each other diligence, and wit nesses of each other success. Thus will each of you receive a reward in full, not only on his own behalf, but also for his brother progress. And, as is fitting, you will be source of mutual profit to one another in both word and deed, as the result of constant intercourse and exhortation.
This enthusiasm of Basil for the common lifeinduced him not only to recommend solitary ascetics to come together and form communities, but led him also to construct cells in the neighbourhood of his monasteries for such as persisted in the solitary life. Gregory Nazianzen, in his Panegyric on Basil, thus speaks of his friend activity in this direction : He reconciled and united most excellently the solitary and the com munity life. These had been in many respects at