What does the apostle mean when he says, “For there is no authority except from God, and the authorities that exist are appointed by God. Therefore whoever resists the authority resists the ordinance of God, and those who resist will bring judgment on themselves” (Rom. 13:1–2)?

Does this mean that all rulers, even those who are evil, are appointed by God? In fact, it is the system of leaders and rulers that is appointed by God, and not the individual persons themselves. The apostle calls us not to oppose the existence of a state system because such systems are permitted by God for the sake humanity’s edification and peace; and for our protection from evildoers, such as murderers, thieves, slanderers, deceivers, etc. However, not every ruler is appointed by God. We would not say that Nero the oppressor was appointed God, nor Julian the Apostate, nor Arianus the governor of Ansena, etc.

St. John Chrysostom says, “And the first claim such an enactment has upon us, and the reasoning that suits the faithful, is, that all this is of God’s appointment. ‘For there is no power,’ he says, ‘but of God.’ What say you? it may be said; is every ruler then elected by God? This I do not say, he answers. Nor am I now speaking about individual rulers, but about

783 St. Ambrose of Milan, Hexaemeron 5.15.52 (FOTC 42:201–202).

784 St. Ambrose of Milan, Paradise 3:18 (FOTC 42:298).

the thing in itself. For that there should be rulers, and some rule and others be ruled, and that all things should not just be carried on in one confusion, the people swaying like waves in this direction and that; this, I say, is the work of God’s wisdom. Hence he does not say, ‘for there is no ruler but of God’; but it is the thing he speaks of, and says, ‘there is no power but of God.’”⁷⁸⁵

The scholar Origen believes that the words of the apostle Paul in Romans 13:1, namely “for there is no authority except from God,” contains a warning to corrupt authorities. For authority is a gift and a talent from God that should not be used arrogantly for the sake of one person, but for service and benefit of society. These are talents for which they will give account. Origen says, “There is no one who does not know that even sight is a gift from God to us, as well as hearing and the ability to think. Well then, though we have these things from God, it nevertheless is within our authority to make use of our vision either for good things or evil things … the judgment of God is just (cf. 2 Thess. 1:5) because we misuse these things that he has given for good use, for impious and wicked service. So then, all authority has also been given by God ‘to punish those who are evil but to praise those who are good’ (1 Pet. 2:14); just as the same Apostle says in what follows (cf. Rom. 13:3–4). But the judgment of God will be just in respect to those who govern the authority they have received in accordance with their own impieties and not in accordance with God’s laws.”⁷⁸⁶

St. Basil the Great says, “it is right to submit to higher authority wherever a command of God would not be violated.”⁷⁸⁷